Assessing the Impact of Petrol Service Stations on Selected Physico-Chemical Water Quality Parameters within Port Harcourt Metropolis, Nigeria

This study assessed the impact of petrol service stations on physico-chemical water quality in Port Harcourt metropolis, Rivers State. This threw light on the extent of damage and alteration of water quality in Port Harcourt metropolis as a result of the proliferation of petrol service stations especially the condition of ground and nearby surface water. This serves as a useful tool to government and regulatory authorities for planning especially due to lack of central water supply system in Port Harcourt metropolis. The parameters studied were sampled, measured and analyzed using in situ and other standard methods. Remarkable results above permissible limits of interest for physicochemical parameter analysis revealed pH values from 4.6 to 6.8, electrical conductivity from 0.002 µS/cm to 0.42 µS/cm, salinity from 3 ppm to 4050 ppm, and temperatures from 19.9˚C to 32.6˚C. Total dissolved solids (TDS) varied from 7 ppm to 1000 ppm, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) from 0.167 mg/L to 2.167 mg/L, chemical oxygen demand (COD) from 0.257 mg/L to 3.253 mg/L, and dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations from 1.70 mg/L to 4.30 mg/L. Specifically, water samples from NNPC Filling Station (Choba) and Eneka Pond displayed “Poor” water quality with WQI values of 112.003 and 112.076, respectively. Similarly, ALLTEC Filling Station (Eneka) and TOTAL Filling Station (Rumuomasi) had “Poor” water quality with WQI values of 173.707 and 180.946, respectively. In contrast, Excelsis Filling Station (Akpajo) demonstrated “Good” water quality with a WQI of 85.2072, while Total Filling Stations (Slaughter) and Choba River revealed “unsuitable for drinking” water quality with WQI values of 552.461 and 654.601, respectively. Slaughter River also indicated very poor water quality with a WQI of 442.024. The physicochemical and nutrient analyses of the water samples showed that activities of the filling stations within the study area may have polluted groundwater in the environment posing poor aesthetics and great health risk to consumers of the water bodies. The findings underscore the need for immediate remediation efforts and stricter regulatory measures to protect water quality. The study concluded that surface and groundwater near petrol service stations in Port Harcourt are unfit for drinking and irrigation purposes without adequate treatment.

Experimental study of water aging on asphalt during service life of pavements

In order to further simulate the real condition of pavements during the service life,moisture is considered in long-term aging tests based on the existing researches about thermal aging and oxidation aging of asphalt.Water is injected into the pressure aging vessel（PAV）to simulate the aging process during the service life.The performance-based strategic highway research program（SHRP）parameters G/sinδ and S（t）are adopted to evaluate the high-temperature properties and low-temperature properties of the aged asphalt,respectively.The Thailand 90# asphalt,the modified Thailand 90# asphalt and the Shell 70# asphalt are used in the test.It is found that the moisture has a significant influence on parameter G/sinδ when combined with heat and oxygen,so water aging makes high-temperature performance decay more seriously.But the low-temperature performance does not change remarkably after water aging.Since the influences of temperature,oxygen and water are taken into account in the PAV test,the accuracy of asphalt aging tests can be improved and the long-term aging process of asphalt pavement can be exactly simulated.

Ecosystem Service Flow Insights into Horizontal Ecological Compensation Standards for Water Resource: A Case Study in Dongjiang Lake Basin, China

Water supply services(WSSs) are critical for the regional water balance and water circulation, but relevant studies have not established the relationship between WSSs and human well-being. This research identifies the scope of areas that benefit from WSSs from an ecosystem service flow perspective. Moreover, the path and quantity of the flow of WSSs are simulated to provide a scientific theoretical basis for ecosystem service management and ecological compensation. The Dongjiang Lake Basin is a national priority river basin in China where ecological compensation pilot programmes concerning water resources are top priorities. Dongjiang Lake Basin experienced an increase and then a decrease in the overall supply of water, with an average net water supply of 1096–1500 mm for the years 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2010. The water demand increased each year in service beneficiary areas(SBAs), varying from 387 to 580 mm. Overall, Dongjiang Lake Basin met the net water demands of the actual SBAs in the lower reaches, but a gap in the water supply and demand emerged gradually. This research provides an understanding of the functional mechanisms for the provision, demand and flow of WSSs and provides a scientific theoretical basis for ecosystem service management and ecological compensation.

Ecological service assessment of human-dominated freshwater ecosystem with a case study in Yangzhou Prefecture, China

Freshwater ecosystems provide a host of services to humanity. These services are now rapidly being lost, not least because of the inability of making the impacts measurable. To overcome this obstacle, assessment frameworks for freshwater ecosystem services are needed. A simple water equivalent framework to assess the ecological services provided by freshwater ecosystems was developed in this study. It translated the occupation of freshwater ecosystem services into biologically freshwater volumes and then compares this consumption to the freshwater throughput, that is, the ecological capacity available in this region. In this way, we use the example of Yangzhou Prefecture, to account the main categories of human occupation of water ecosystem services. The result showed that there is a huge gap between the consumption and the supply of freshwater ecosystem services. This must encourage local government to make land-use and water management decisions both economically rational and environmentally sound.

Driving Forces and Their Effects on Water Conservation Services in Forest Ecosystems in China

Identifying the driving forces that cause changes in forest ecosystem services related to water conservation is essential for the design of interventions that could enhance positive impacts as well as minimizing negative impacts. In this study, we propose an assessment concept framework model for indirect-direct-ecosystem service （IN-DI-ESS） driving forces within this context and method for index construction that considers the selection of a robust and parsimonious variable set. Factor analysis was integrated into two-stage data envelopment analysis （TS-DEA） to determine the driving forces and their effects on water conservation services in forest ecosystems at the provincial scale in China. The results showed the following. 1） Ten indicators with factor scores more than 0.8 were selected as the minimum data set. Four indicators comprising population density, per capita gross domestic product, irrigation efficiency, and per capita food consumption were the indirect driving factors, and six indicators comprising precipitation, farmland into forestry or pasture, forest cover, habitat area, water footprint, and wood extraction were the direct driving forces. 2） Spearman＇s rank correlation test was performed to compare the overall effectiveness in two periods： stage 1 and stage 2. The calculated coefficients were 0.245, 0.136, and 0.579, respectively, whereas the tabulated value was 0.562. This indicates that the driving forces obviously differed in terms of their contribution to the overall effectiveness and they caused changes in water conservation services in different stages. In terms of the variations in different driving force effects in the years 2000 and 2010, the overall, stage 1, and stage 2 variances were 0.020, 0.065, and 0.079 in 2000, respectively, and 0.018, 0.063, and 0.071 in 2010. This also indicates that heterogeneous driving force effects were obvious in the process during the same period. Identifying the driving forces that affect service changes and evaluating their efficiency have significant policy implications for the management of forest ecosystem services. Advanced effectiveness measures for weak regions could be improved in an appropriate manner. In this study, we showed that factor analysis coupled with TS-DEA based on the IN-D1-ESS framework can increase the parsimony of driving force indicators, as well as interpreting the interactions among indirect and direct driving forces with forest ecosystem water conservation services, and reducing the uncertainty related to the internal consistency during data selection.

Spatial matching and flow in supply and demand of water provision services: A case study in Xiangjiang River Basin

Global climate change and increased human consumption have aggravated the uneven spatiotemporal distribution of watershed water resources, affecting the water provision supply and demand state. However, this problem has often been ignored. The present study used the Xiangjiang River basin(XRB) as the study area, and the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs(InVEST) model, demand quantification model,supply–demand ratio, and water flow formula were applied to explore the spatial heterogeneity, flow, and equilibrium between water supply and demand. The results demonstrated significant spatial heterogeneity in the upstream, midstream, and downstream regions.The areas of water shortage were mainly located the downstream of the Changsha–Zhuzhou–Xiangtan urban agglomeration, and the Hengyang basin was the most scarcity area. Affected by terrain gradients and human needs, water flow varied from-16.33 × 10^(8) m^(3) to 13.69 × 10^(8) m^(3)from the upstream to the downstream area, which provided a possibility to reduce spatial heterogeneity. In the future, measures such as strengthening water resource system control,sponge city construction, and dynamic monitoring technology should be taken to balance the supply and demand of water in different river sections of the basin. This study can provide references for regulating water resources allocation in different reaches of the basin.

Serviceability evaluation of water supply networks under seismic loads utilizing their operational physical mechanism

The serviceability of water supply networks(WSNs)under seismic loads has significant importance for estimating the probable losses and the impact of diminished functionality on affected communities.The innovation presented in this paper is suggesting a new strategy to evaluate the seismic serviceability of WSNs,utilizing their operational physical mechanism.On one hand,this method can obtain the seismic serviceability of each node as well as entire WSNs.On the other hand,this method can dynamically reflect the propagation of randomness from ground motions to WSNs.First,a finite element model is established to capture the seismic response of buried pipe networks,and a leakage model is suggested to obtain the leakage area of WSNs.Second,the transient flow analysis of WSNs with or without leakage is derived to obtain dynamic water flow and pressure.Third,the seismic serviceability of WSNs is analyzed based on the probability density evolution method(PDEM).Finally,the seismic serviceability of a real WSN in Mianzhu city is assessed to illustrate the method.The case study shows that randomness from the ground motions can obviously affect the leakage state and the probability density of the nodal head during earthquakes.

Spatiotemporal changes in water,land use,and ecosystem services in Central Asia considering climate changes and human activities

Central Asia is located in the hinterland of Eurasia,comprising Kazakhstan,Uzbekistan,Kyrgyzstan,Turkmenistan,and Tajikistan;over 93.00%of the total area is dryland.Temperature rise and human activities have severe impacts on the fragile ecosystems.Since the 1970s,nearly half the great lakes in Central Asia have shrunk and rivers are drying rapidly owing to climate changes and human activities.Water shortage and ecological crisis have attracted extensive international attention.In general,ecosystem services in Central Asia are declining,particularly with respect to biodiversity,water,and soil conservation.Furthermore,the annual average temperature and annual precipitation in Central Asia increased by 0.30℃/decade and 6.9 mm/decade in recent decades,respectively.Temperature rise significantly affected glacier retreat in the Tianshan Mountains and Pamir Mountains,which may intensify water shortage in the 21st century.The increase in precipitation cannot counterbalance the aggravation of water shortage caused by the temperature rise and human activities in Central Asia.The population of Central Asia is growing gradually,and its economy is increasing steadily.Moreover,the agricultural land has not been expended in the last two decades.Thus,water and ecological crises,such as the Aral Sea shrinkage in the 21st century,cannot be attributed to agriculture extension any longer.Unbalanced regional development and water interception/transfer have led to the irrational exploitation of water resources in some watersheds,inducing downstream water shortage and ecological degradation.In addition,accelerated industrialization and urbanization have intensified this process.Therefore,all Central Asian countries must urgently reach a consensus and adopt common measures for water and ecological protection.

Trade-offs and synergies between ecosystem services in Yutian County along the Keriya River Basin,Northwest China

The Keriya River Basin is located in an extremely arid climate zone on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin of Northwest China,exhibiting typical mountain-oasis-desert distribution characteristics.In recent decades,climate change and human activities have exerted significant impacts on the service functions of watershed ecosystems.However,the trade-offs and synergies between ecosystem services(ESs)have not been thoroughly examined.This study aims to reveal the spatiotemporal changes in ESs within the Keriya River Basin from 1995 to 2020 as well as the trade-offs and synergies between ESs.Leveraging the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs(InVEST)and Revised Wind Erosion Equation(RWEQ)using land use/land cover(LULC),climate,vegetation,soil,and hydrological data,we quantified the spatiotemporal changes in the five principal ESs(carbon storage,water yield,food production,wind and sand prevention,and habitat quality)of the watershed from 1995 to 2020.Spearman correlation coefficients were used to analyze the trade-offs and synergies between ES pairs.The findings reveal that water yield,carbon storage,and habitat quality exhibited relatively high levels in the upstream,while food production and wind and sand prevention dominated the midstream and downstream,respectively.Furthermore,carbon storage,food production,wind and sand prevention,and habitat quality demonstrated an increase at the watershed scale while water yield exhibited a decline from 1995 to 2020.Specifically,carbon storage,wind and sand prevention,and habitat quality presented an upward trend in the upstream but downward trend in the midstream and downstream.Food production in the midstream showed a continuously increasing trend during the study period.Trade-off relationships were identified between water yield and wind and sand prevention,water yield and carbon storage,food production and water yield,and habitat quality and wind and sand prevention.Prominent temporal and spatial synergistic relationships were observed between different ESs,notably between carbon storage and habitat quality,carbon storage and food production,food production and wind and sand prevention,and food production and habitat quality.Water resources emerged as a decisive factor for the sustainable development of the basin,thus highlighting the intricate trade-offs and synergies between water yield and the other four services,particularly the relationship with food production,which warrants further attention.This research is of great significance for the protection and sustainable development of river basins in arid areas.

Forecasting Loss of Ecosystem Service Value Using a BP Network: A Case Study of the Impact of the South-to-north Water Transfer Project on the Ecological Environmental in Xiangfan, Hubei Province, China

Objective To recognize and assess the impact of the South-to-north Water Transfer Project (SNWTP) on the ecological environment of Xiangfan, Hubei Province, situated in the water-out area, and develop sound scientific countermeasures. Methods A three-layer BP network was built to simulate topology and process of the eco-economy system of Xiangfan. Historical data of ecological environmental factors and socio-economic factors as inputs, and corresponding historical data of ecosystem service value (ESV) and GDP as target outputs, were presented to train and test the network. When predicted input data after 2001 were presented to trained network as generalization sets, ESVs and GDPs of 2002, 2003, 2004... till 2050 were simulated as output in succession. Results Up to 2050, the area would have suffered an accumulative total ESV loss of RMB 104.9 billion, which accounted for 37.36% of the present ESV. The coinstantaneous GDP would change asynchronously with ESV, it would go through an up-to-down process and finally lose RMB89.3 billion, which accounted for 18.71% of 2001. Conclusions The simulation indicates that ESV loss means damage to the capability of socio-economic sustainable development, and suggests that artificial neural networks (ANNs) provide a feasible and effective method and have an important potential in ESV modeling.

Modeling and analyzing supply-demand relationships of water resources in Xinjiang from a perspective of ecosystem services

Water shortage is one bottleneck that limits economic and social developments in arid and semi-arid areas.As the impacts of climate change and human disturbance intensify across time,uncertainties in both water resource supplies and demands increase in arid and semi-arid areas.Taking a typical arid region in China,Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region,as an example,water yield depth(WYD)and water utilization depth(WUD)from 2002 to 2018 were simulated using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs(InVEST)model and socioeconomic data.The supply-demand relationships of water resources were analyzed using the ecosystem service indices including water supply-demand difference(WSDD)and water supply rate(WSR).The internal factors in changes of WYD and WUD were explored using the controlled variable method.The results show that the supplydemand relationships of water resources in Xinjiang were in a slight deficit,but the deficit was alleviated due to increased precipitation and decreased WUD of irrigation.WYD generally experienced an increasing trend,and significant increase mainly occurred in the oasis areas surrounding both the Junggar Basin and Tarim Basin.WUD had a downward trend with a decline of 20.70%,especially in oasis areas.Water resources in most areas of Xinjiang were fully utilized and the utilization efficiency of water resources increased.The water yield module in the InVEST model was calibrated and validated using gauging station data in Xinjiang,and the result shows that the use of satellite-based water storage data helped to decrease the bias error of the InVEST model by 0.69×10^(8)m^(3).This study analyzed water resource supplies and demands from a perspective of ecosystem services,which expanded the scope of the application of ecosystem services and increased the research perspective of water resource evaluation.The results could provide guidance for water resource management such as spatial allocation and structural optimization of water resources in arid and semi-arid areas.

Transdisciplinary research for supporting the integration of ecosystem services into land and water management in the Tarim River Basin,Xinjiang,China

There is a growing need for both science and practice domains to collaboratively and systematically seek knowledge-based strategies for sustainable development. In recent years, transdisciplinary research has emerged as a new approach that enables joint problem solving among scientists and stakeholders in various fields. In this paper, we aim to introduce transdisciplinary research for supporting the integration of the concept of eco- system services into land and water management in the Tarim River Basin, Xinjiang, Northwest China. While a large number of ecosystem service studies have helped to raise the awareness for the value of nature in China, a number of challenges remain, including an improved understanding of the relationships between ecosystem structure, functions and services, and the interaction of the various ecosystem services. A meaningful valuation of ecosystem services also requires the consideration of their strong spatial heterogeneity. In addition, ways to introduce the con- cept of ecosystem services into decision-making in China need to be explored. Thus, successful integration of the concept of ecosystem services into actual land and water management requires a broad knowledge base that only a number of scientific disciplines and stakeholders can provide jointly, via a transdisciplinary research process. We regard transdisciplinary research as a recursive process to support adaptive management that includes joint knowledge generation and integration among scientists and stakeholders. System, target, and transformation knowledge are generated and integrated during the process of （1） problem （re）definition, （2） problem analysis and strategy development, and （3） evaluation of the impact of the derived strategy. Methods to support transdisciplinary research comprise participatory modelling （actor-based modelling and Bayesian Networks modelling） and partici- patory scenario development. Actor-based modelling is a semi-quantitative method that is based on the analysis of problem perspectives of individual stakeholders as depicted in perception graphs. With Bayesian Networks, com- plex problem fields are modelled probabilistically in a simplified manner, using both quantitative data and qualitative expert judgments. These participatory methods serve to integrate diverse scientific and stakeholder knowledge and to support the generation of actually implementable management strategies for sustainable development. For the purpose of integrating ecosystem services in land and water management in the Tarim River Basin through trans- disciplinary research, collaboration among scientists and institutional stakeholders from different sectors including water, agriculture, forestry, and nature conservation is required. The challenge is to adapt methods of transdisci- plinary research to socio-cultural conditions in China, particularly regarding ways of communication and deci- sion-making.

Spatio-temporal Changes in Water Conservation Ecosystem Service During 1990–2019 in the Tumen River Basin, Northeast China

The water conservation(WC) function of ecosystems is related to regional ecological security and the sustainable development of water resources, and the assessment of WC and its influencing factors is crucial for ecological and water resource management.The Tumen River Basin(TRB) is located in the core of the Northeast Asian ecological network and has been experiencing severe ecological crises and water shortages in recent years due to climate change and human activities. However, these crises have not been fully revealed to the extent that corresponding scientific measures are lacking. This study analyzed the spatial and temporal evolution characteristics and drivers of WC in the TRB from 1990 to 2019 based on the water yield module of the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs(InVEST) model. The results showed that: 1) under the combined effect of nature and socioeconomics, the WC depth of the TRB has slowly increased at a rate of 0.11 mm/yr in the past 30 years, with an average WC depth of 36.14 mm. 2) The main driving factor of the spatial variation in WC is precipitation, there is a significant interaction between precipitation and velocity, the interaction between each factor is higher than the contribution of a single factor, and the interactions between factors all have nonlinear enhancement and two-factor enhancement. 3) Among the seven counties and municipalities in the study area, the southern part of Helong City and the southeastern part of Longjing City are extremely important areas for WC(> 75 mm), and they should be regarded as regional water resources and ecological priority protection areas. It is foreseen that under extreme climate conditions in the future, the WC of the watershed is under great potential threat, and protection measures such as afforestation and forestation should begin immediately. Furthermore, the great interannual fluctuations in WC depth may place more stringent requirements on the choice of time scales in the ecosystem service assessment process.

Geospatial Evaluation for Ecological Watershed Management II: Changes in Land Use—Land Cover Influence on Ecosystems Services

Ecosystem services are a key to human survival and global sustainability. Consequently, there is the need to avoid unscrupulous or unplanned land use practices that can compromise these services in addition to the ongoing changes in the global climate whose potentially negative impact are yet to be fully comprehended thus far. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the Land use—land cover changes of some Eastern Shore sub-watersheds of Maryland from 1986-2006 and qualitatively assess the impact of the changes on some key ecosystem services. Landsat-TM data for Maryland Eastern Shore in the United States were analyzed in ENVI and ArcGIS environment and data interpreted qualitatively. The result showed that forest lands increased during the study period and thus enhanced carbon sequestration favorable for mitigating global warming in the area. Also, the extent of surface water cover increased slightly, possibly due to rising sea level and a thus a potential threat to biodiversity and barrier islands nearby. There was also a significant increase in urban lands due to population increase and thus increase in the extent of impervious layers that could lead to reduced surface runoff and increase the potential for surface water quality impairment;this could lead to a reduction in the capacity of surface water ecosystem to provide clean/recreational waters. The increase in the extent of surface water cover was at the expense of the wetlands that shrunk, thereby threatening the coastal ecosystem’s ability to provide services such as storm and wave protection, nutrient cycling, and the protection of wildlife habitat. There was also a decrease in the extent of Agricultural lands which could lead to loss of food and fiber during the study period. There is therefore an urgent need to formulate or intensify existing policies to regulate land use from an ecological health standpoint in order to ensure sustainability of the various ecosystems within the watersheds of the Lower Eastern Shore of Maryland in the US, and similar coastal locations elsewhere.

Spatiotemporal variations of ecosystem services and driving factors in the Tianchi Bogda Peak Natural Reserve of Xinjiang,China

Nature reserves play a significant role in providing ecosystem services and are key sites for biodiversity conservation.The Tianchi Bogda Peak Natural Reserve(TBPNR),located in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region,China,is an important ecological barrier area in the temperate arid zone.The evaluation of its important ecosystem services is of great significance to improve the management level and ecological protection efficiency of the reserve.In the present study,we assessed the spatiotemporal variations of four ecosystem services(including net primary productivity(NPP),water yield,soil conservation,and habitat quality)in the TBPNR from 2000 to 2020 based on the environmental and social data using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs(InVEST)model.In addition,the coldspot and hotspot areas of ecosystem services were identified by hotspot analysis,and the trade-off and synergistic relationships between ecosystem services were analyzed using factor analysis in a geographic detector.During the study period,NPP and soil conservation values in the reserve increased by 48.20%and 25.56%,respectively;conversely,water yield decreased by 16.56%,and there was no significant change in habitat quality.Spatially,both NPP and habitat quality values were higher in the northern part and lower in the southern part,whereas water yield showed an opposite trend.Correlation analysis revealed that NPP showed a synergistic relationship with habitat quality and soil conservation,and exhibited a trade-off relationship with water yield.Water yield and habitat quality also had a trade-off relationship.NPP and habitat quality were affected by annual average temperature and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI),respectively,while water yield and soil conservation were more affected by digital elevation model(DEM).Therefore,attention should be paid to the spatial distribution and dynamics of trade-off and synergistic relationships between ecosystem services in future ecological management.The findings of the present study provide a reference that could facilitate the sustainable utilization of ecosystem services in the typical fragile areas of Northwest China.

Value Evaluation of Water Ecosystem Services——A Case Study of Changshu City

[ Objective] The study aimed to quantitatively assess the values of water ecosystem services. [ Method] Combining the market value, travel cost and restoration cost method, the ecological services and their economic values of the lake Taodangmian were assessed from aspects of water supply, recreation and tourism, water purification and biodiversity maintenance. [ Resultl For the lake Taodangmian, its freshwater supply and tourism played more positive roles in the society than the others, while the functions of water purification and biodiversity maintenance brought negative effects, which shows that the ecological environment of Taodangmian has become increasingly worse and needs to be controlled and and protected further. [ Conclusion] The research could provide scientific references for the reasonable exploitation and utilization of water resources.

Research on the management models of the rural primary water management from the view of public service:a case study of Zhejiang Province

The rural primary organizations of water management are the important parts of the public service system in the government administration.This paper studies several major management models of the rural primary water management in Zhejiang Province of China.The research result shows that ambiguous functions,lack of funding,and unreasonable personnel structure are the major problems of the rural primary water management.Therefore,it is urgent to improve service system,ensure sufficient funds,and qualify the population personnel of the rural primary organizations of water

The Relationship between Size and Performance of Palestinian Water Service Providers

Studies investigating the relationship between size and performance of water service providers are abundant. Yet, this relationship has not been fully addressed in Palestinian water sector, particularly, after the issuance of water law 2014 which calls for merging water providers into large regional utilities. This research evaluates the significant effect of the size of Palestinian water service providers on non-revenue water, staff productivity, collection efficiency, average consumption, average price, operating and maintenance cost, working ratio, and gross profit. The multivariate analysis shows that there are significant differences in working ratio, non-revenue water, staff productivity, average price, and gross profit based on the size. On the other side, no significant differences have been found in average daily consumption, operating and maintenance cost per unit, and collection efficiency based on those providers’ size. The small service providers perform better in non-revenue water, staff productivity, and collection efficiency;wherein, large service providers are more profitable than small service providers. Implications of these findings by conducting further studies will add the value for better merging of the Palestinian water providers and the reforming process.

The Public Water Supply Protection Value of Forests: A Watershed-Scale Ecosystem Services Analysis Based upon Total Organic Carbon

We developed a cost-based methodology to assess the value of forested watersheds to improve water quality in public water supplies. The developed methodology is applicable to other source watersheds to determine ecosystem services for water quality. We assess the value of forest land for source water mitigation of total organic carbon (TOC) through the use of linked watershed and reservoir simulation models and cost-based valuation economics. Watershed modeling results indicated that expected urbanization will increase TOC loads to Converse Reservoir (Mobile, AL). Reservoir model results indicated that future median TOC concentrations increased by 1.1 mg·L-1 between 1992 and 2020 at the source water intake. Depending upon dynamic reservoir TOC concentrations, additional drinking water treatment with powdered activated carbon (PAC) often is necessary between May and October to comply with Safe Drinking Water Act regulations. The cost for additional treatment was calculated using minimum and maximum volume treated with simulated TOC concentrations at the source water intake. Daily simulated TOC concentrations for the base scenario using 1992 land cover (3% urban) were compared with simulated TOC concentrations following forest to urban land conversion predicted in the watershed by 2020 (22% urban). The daily cost for additional drinking water treatment with PAC was calculated if simulated TOC concentrations exceeded 2.7 mg·L-1. The mean increase in daily treatment costs between base and future scenarios ranged from $91 to $95 per km2 per day for forest land water purification ecosystem services.

Adaptation Technology: Benefits of Hydrological Services—Watershed Management in Semi-Arid Region of India

Watershed management consists of multifunctional activities to manage and address the increasing water resource problems. Ever increasing water demand and rapidly depleting water resources, it has become necessary to develop the adaptation options to recharge groundwater resources. A watershed is a special kind of Common Pool Resources (CPRs);an area is defined by hydrological linkages where optimal management requires coordinating the use of natural resources by public participation. Watershed developments have shown significant positive impacts on water table, perennially of water in wells and water availability especially in semi-arid regions. This paper describes direct and indirect impacts of the watershed activities and benefits of hydrological services dealing with watershed management with future prediction of net irrigation water supply. In the present work, we have also discussed the multiple impacts of watershed of CPRs for improving groundwater and surface water resources.