A novel protein refolding method integrating ion exchange chromatography with artificial molecular chaperone

Artificial molecular chaperone （AMC） and ion exchange chromatography （IEC） were integrated, thus a new refolding method, artificial molecular chaperone-ion exchange chromatography （AMC-IEC） was developed. Compared with AMC and IEC, the activity recovery of lysozyme obtained by AMC-IEC was much higher in the investigated range of initial protein concentrations, and the results show that AMC-IEC is very efficient for protein refolding at high concentrations. When the initial concentration of lysozyme is 180 mg/mL, its activity recovery obtained by AMC-IEC is still as high as 76.6%, while the activity recoveries obtained by AMC and IEC are 45.6% and 42.4%, respectively.

Molecular chaperones in stroke-induced immunosuppression

Stroke-induced immunosuppression is a process that leads to peripheral suppression of the immune system after a stroke and belongs to the central nervous system injury-induced immunosuppressive syndrome.Stroke-induced immunosuppression leads to increased susceptibility to post-stroke infections,such as urinary tract infections and stroke-associated pneumonia,worsening prognosis.Molecular chaperones are a large class of proteins that are able to maintain proteostasis by directing the folding of nascent polypeptide chains,refolding misfolded proteins,and targeting misfolded proteins for degradation.Various molecular chaperones have been shown to play roles in stroke-induced immunosuppression by modulating the activity of other molecular chaperones,cochaperones,and their associated pathways.This review summarizes the role of molecular chaperones in stroke-induced immunosuppression and discusses new approaches to restore host immune defense after stroke.

Molecular chaperones and hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy

Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy（HIE） is a disease that occurs when the brain is subjected to hypoxia,resulting in neuronal death and neurological deficits,with a poor prognosis.The mechanisms underlying hypoxic-ischemic brain injury include excitatory amino acid release,cellular proteolysis,reactive oxygen species generation,nitric oxide synthesis,and inflammation.The molecular and cellular changes in HIE include protein misfolding,aggregation,and destruction of organelles.The apoptotic pathways activated by ischemia and hypoxia include the mitochondrial pathway,the extrinsic Fas receptor pathway,and the endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced pathway.Numerous treatments for hypoxic-ischemic brain injury caused by HIE have been developed over the last half century.Hypothermia,xenon gas treatment,the use of melatonin and erythropoietin,and hypoxic-ischemic preconditioning have proven effective in HIE patients.Molecular chaperones are proteins ubiquitously present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.A large number of molecular chaperones are induced after brain ischemia and hypoxia,among which the heat shock proteins are the most important.Heat shock proteins not only maintain protein homeostasis; they also exert anti-apoptotic effects.Heat shock proteins maintain protein homeostasis by helping to transport proteins to their target destinations,assisting in the proper folding of newly synthesized polypeptides,regulating the degradation of misfolded proteins,inhibiting the aggregation of proteins,and by controlling the refolding of misfolded proteins.In addition,heat shock proteins exert anti-apoptotic effects by interacting with various signaling pathways to block the activation of downstream effectors in numerous apoptotic pathways,including the intrinsic pathway,the endoplasmic reticulum-stress mediated pathway and the extrinsic Fas receptor pathway.Molecular chaperones play a key role in neuroprotection in HIE.In this review,we provide an overview of the mechanisms of HIE and discuss the various treatment strategies.Given their critical role in the disease,molecular chaperones are promising therapeutic targets for HIE.

Molecular chaperones and neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the accumulation of intracellular or extracellular protein aggregates that result from conformational changes in proteins. These diseases may result from an imbalance between the produetion of misfolded proteins and normal chaperone capacity. Molecular chaperones provide a first line of defenee against misfolded, aggragation-prone proteins and are, therefore, promising therapeutic targets for neurodegenerative diseases.

Oxidative modification of the molecular chaperone family in a PC12 cell model of Parkinson's disease induced by Z-Ile-Glu(OtBu)-Ala-Leucinal

Previous studies have demonstrated that ubiquitin-proteasome system function is significantly decreased in the substantia nigra of Parkinson＇s disease patients. In the present study, proteasome inhibitor Z-Ile-Glu（OtBu）-Ala-Leucinal （PSI） was used to inhibit the function of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in PC12 cells to simulate Parkinson＇s disease. Oxidatively modified proteins were identified to determine pathogenesis of Parkinson＇s disease. Results demonstrated that 24 hours of 10 IJmol/L PSI-treatment in PC12 cells simulated pathological characteristics of Parkinson＇s disease： neuronal degeneration and eosinophilic inclusion formation in neurons. In PSI-treated PC12 cells, three oxidative proteins and a molecular chaperone family member were detected： chaperonin containing t-complex polypeptide 1 subunit 3, glucose-regulated protein 58, and heat shock protein 70. This is the first study to demonstrate oxidative modification of a molecule family in a cell model of Parkinson＇s disease induced with PSI.

Single-step Purification of Molecular Chaperone GroEL by Expanded Bed Chromatography

Expanded bed adsorption (EBA) is an integrative downstream processing technique for the purification of biological substances directly from unclarified feedstock. In this study, molecular chaperone GroEL, an important protein folding helper both in vivo and in vitro, was purified by the single-step EBA technique from the unclarified homogenate of recombinant E. coli cells. Compared with packed bed adsorption, the EBA technique provided a single-step approach to yield an electrophoretic purity of GroEL. After the homogenate loading and column washing in the expanded bed mode, the GroEL protein was recovered by stepwise salt-gradient elution in packed-bed or expanded-bed modes, respectively. The expanded-bed elution mode was found as efficient as the packed-bed mode in the purification of GroEL from cell disruptate.

Differential Expression of Molecular Chaperones in PC12 Cells Treated with PSI

Parkinson＇s disease（PD） is a common neurodegenerative disorder whose primary pathology features are the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta（SNc） and the presence of eosinophilic inclusions called Lewy body in the cytoplasm of the remained neurons. Growing evidence suggests that dysfunction of the ubiquitin-proteasome system（UPS） is involved in the etiopathogenesis of PD. In order to investigate the pathogenetic mechanism of ubiquitin-proteasome dysfunction in PD, 2D-differential gel electrophoresis（2D-DIGE） and MALDI-TOF Pro MS were used to determine the proteins, which were differentially expressed, in PC12 cells that had undergone a synthetic proteasomal inhibitor PSI（10 μmol/L） treatment for 24 h. Forty-six protein spots were differentially expressed in response to PSI administration, of which 34 were increased and 12 decreased. Six of these were identified as molecular charperones： endoplasmin precursor（GRP94）, heat shock protein 105（HSP105）, HSC-70-psl, glucose ruglated protein 75（GRP75）, glucose ruglated protein 58（GRP58） and heat shock 27000 protein l（HSP27）. The results suggest that the molecular chaperones play an important role in the PD model induced by proteasomal inhibitor.

The role of the molecular chaperone heat shock protein A2 （HSPA2） in regulating human sperm-egg recognition

One of the most common lesions present in the spermatozoa of human infertility patients is an idiopathic failure of sperm-egg recognition. Although this unique cellular interaction can now be readily by-passed by assisted reproductive strategies such as intracytoplasmic sperm injection （ICSI）, recent large-scale epidemiological studies have encouraged the cautious use of this technology and highlighted the need for further research into the mechanisms responsible for defective sperm-egg recognition. Previous work in this field has established that the sperm domains responsible for oocyte interaction are formed during spermatogenesis prior to being dynamically modified during epididymal maturation and capacitation in female reproductive tract. While the factors responsible for the regulation of these sequential maturational events are undoubtedly complex, emerging research has identified the molecular chaperone, heat shock protein A2 （HSPA2）, as a key regulator of these events in human spermatozoa. HSPA2 is a testis-enriched member of the 70 kDa heat shock protein family that promotes the folding, transport, and assembly of protein complexes and has been positively correlated with in vitro fertilization （IVF） success. Furthermore, reduced expression of HSPA2 from the human sperm proteome leads to an impaired capacity for cumulus matrix dispersal, sperm-egg recognition and fertilization following both IVF and ICSI. In this review, we consider the evidence supporting the role of HSPA2 in sperm function and explore the potential mechanisms by which it is depleted in the spermatozoa of infertile patients. Such information offers novel insights into the molecular mechanisms governing sperm function.

Modulation of protein fate decision by small molecules:targeting molecular chaperone machinery

Modulation of protein fate decision and protein homeostasis plays a significant role in altering the protein level,which acts as an orientation to develop drugs with new mechanisms.The molecular chaperones exert significant biological functions on modulation of protein fate decision and protein homeostasis under constantly changing environmental conditions through extensive protein-protein interactions(PPIs)with their client proteins.With the help of molecular chaperone machinery the processes of protein folding,trafficking,quality control and degradation of client proteins could be arranged properly.The core members of molecular chaperones,including heat shock proteins(HSPs)family and their co-chaperones,are emerging as potential drug targets since they are involved in numerous disease conditions.Development of small molecule modulators targeting not only chaperones themselves but also the PPIs among chaperones,co-chaperones and clients is attracting more and more attention.These modulators are widely used as chemical tools to study chaperone networks as well as potential drug candidates for a broader set of diseases.Here,we reviewed the key checkpoints of molecular chaperone machinery HSPs as well as their co-chaperones to discuss the small molecules targeting on them for modulation of protein fate decision.

Genetic analysis implicates a molecular chaperone complex in regulating epigenetic silencing of methylated genomic regions

DNA cytosine methylation confers stable epigenetic silencing in plants and many animals.However,the mechanisms underlying DNA methylation-mediated genomic silencing are not fully understood.We conducted a forward genetic screen for cellular factors required for the silencing of a heavily methylated p35S:NPTII transgene in the Arabidopsis thaliana rdm1-1 mutant background,which led to the identification of a Hsp20 family protein,RDS1(rdm1-1 suppressor 1).Loss-of-function mutations in RDS1 released the silencing of the p35S::NPTII transgene in rdm1-1 mutant plants,without changing the DNA methylation state of the transgene.Protein interaction analyses suggest that RDS1 exists in a protein complex consisting of the methyl-DNA binding domain proteins MBD5 and MBD6,two other Hsp20 family proteins,RDS2 and IDM3,a Hsp40/DNAJ family protein,and a Hsp70 family protein.Like rds1 mutations,mutations in RDS2,MBD5,or MBD6 release the silencing of the transgene in the rdm1 mutant background.Our results suggest that Hsp20,Hsp40,and Hsp70 proteins may form a complex that is recruited to some genomic regions with DNA methylation by methyl-DNA binding proteins to regulate the state of silencing of these regions.

Posttranslational modulation on the biological activities of molecular chaperones

Molecular chaperones are a family of proteins that were first noticed to exist about 45 years ago from their increased transcription under heat shock conditions.As a result,the regulation of their encoding genes has been subject to extensive studies.Recent studies revealed that the biological activities of molecular chaperones can also be effectively modulated at the protein level.The ways of modulation so far elucidated include allosteric effect,covalent modification,protein-protein interaction,and con-formational alteration induced by such macro-environmental conditions as temperature and pH.These latter aspects were reviewed here.Emphasized here is the importance of such immediate structural alterations that lead to an immediate activity increase,providing the immediate protection needed for the cells to survive the stress conditions.

Differential expression of endoplasmic reticulum molecular chaperone Grp94 in human colorectal carcinoma and promyelocytic leukemia cells

ENDOPLASMIC reticulum (ER) molecular chaperone glucose regulated protein (Grp94 ), a mem-ber of heat shock protein 90 family, is a relatively abundant luminal protein in the ER. Theexpression of the Grp94 gene is markedly increased under many stress conditions. Grp94 isprimarily involved in folding, assembly and translocation of proteins synthesized within

Effect of chaperone–client interaction strength on Hsp70-mediated protein folding

Protein folding in crowding cellular environment often relies on the assistance of various chaperones. Hsp70 is one of the most ubiquitous chaperones in cells. Previous studies showed that the chaperone–client interactions at the open state tend to remodel the protein folding energy landscape and direct the protein folding as a foldase. In this work, we further investigate how the chaperone–client interaction strength modulates the foldase function of Hsp70 by using molecular simulations. The results showed that the time of substrate folding(including the whole folding step and substrate release step) has a non-monotonic dependence on the interaction strength. With the increasing of the chaperone–client interaction strength, the folding time decreases first, and then increases. More detailed analysis showed that when the chaperone–client interaction is too strong, even small number of chaperones–client contacts can maintain the substrate bound with the chaperone. The sampling of the transient chaperones–client complex with sparse inter-molecule contacts makes the client protein have chance to access the misfolded state even it is bound with chaperone. The current results suggest that the interaction strength is an important factor controlling the Hsp70 chaperoning function.

AAA+ ClpB chaperone as a potential virulence factor of pathogenic microorganisms: Other aspect of its chaperone function

We describe and discuss the most recent findings on the activity and function of the oligomeric AAA+ chaperone ClpB from the Hsp100 protein family in pathogenic microorganisms. Pathogens are exposed to significant stress during infection of the host cells, frequently resulting in protein aggregation. The fact that ClpB is usually up-regulated in pathogens together with its immune reactivity suggests that ClpB acting as a protein disaggregase may be important for pathogen invasion and virulence. However, the specific function of ClpB in pathogenicity is still unclear. Since it is known that ClpB does not exist in mammals, it may serve as a potential target for the development of an effective therapy against several major bacterial diseases that do not respond to conventional antibiotics.

Cytosolic chaperonin CCT possesses GTPase activity

Cytosolic chaperonin CCT (also known as TRiC) is a hetero-oligomeric cage-like molecular chaperone that assists in protein folding by ATPase cycle-dependent conformational changes. However, role of the nucleo-tide binding and hydrolysis in CCT-assisted protein folding is still poorly understood. We purified CCT by using ATP-Sepharose and other columns, and found that CCT possesses ability to hydrolyze GTP, with an activity level very similar to the ATPase activity. CCT was more resistant to proteinase K treatment in the presence of GTP or ATP. These results suggest that the GTPase activity of CCT may play a role in chaperone-assisted protein folding.

共表达分子伴侣蛋白提高III型普鲁兰水解酶在短小芽孢杆菌中的分泌表达及发酵优化

本研究旨在通过共表达分子伴侣蛋白以及优化发酵条件来提高III型普鲁兰水解酶(TK-PUL)在短小芽孢杆菌中的分泌表达水平。通过构建共表达TK-PUL和分子伴侣蛋白的多种重组短小芽孢杆菌,并以胞外酶活为指标对其进行筛选,确定最有利于TK-PUL分泌表达的分子伴侣蛋白及对应的重组短小芽孢杆菌。在此基础上采用单因素实验和响应面法优化重组短小芽孢杆菌的发酵条件。结果表明,共表达分子伴侣蛋白PrsA^(Ba)的重组短小芽孢杆菌的胞外酶活达到98.79 U/mL,提高了0.31倍。该重组短小芽孢杆菌的最佳培养基包括19.65 g/L葡萄糖、21.46 g/L酵母提取物、12.01 g/L MgCl_(2)·6H_(2)O、9.02 g/L脯氨酸、0.01 g/L FeSO4·7H_(2)O、0.01 g/L MnSO4·4H_(2)O、0.001 g/L ZnSO4·7H_(2)O。在发酵温度为35℃、起始发酵pH为7.0的条件下,该重组短小芽孢杆菌于最佳培养基中培养66 h时,其胞外酶活达到192.68 U/mL,提高了1.56倍。本研究通过共表达分子伴侣蛋白和发酵优化实现了TK-PUL在短小芽孢杆菌的高效分泌表达,为TK-PUL的应用提供了基础。

植物热激蛋白功能及表达调控的研究进展

热激蛋白(heat shock proteins,HSPs)在生物体中广泛存在,作为分子伴侣(molecular chaperone)参与蛋白质的折叠、转运、降解以及蛋白复合体的组装等。热激蛋白的种类及其功能具有多样性,并且在细胞内定位于胞质和核以及质体(plastid)、线粒体和内质网等多种细胞器。热激蛋白在植物响应冷、热、盐和干旱等非生物胁迫中具有重要的作用。同时,其还参与植物应对细菌、真菌和病毒等生物胁迫。此外,热激蛋白在植物体的生长发育过程中也发挥着重要作用。本文对热激蛋白的种类及其在植物生长发育和逆境响应中的功能进行了总结和讨论,以期为相关研究提供参考。

分子伴侣增强蛋白酶K在毕赤酵母中的表达及对羊毛鳞片层的作用分析

【目的】通过分子伴侣共表达增强毕赤酵母中异源蛋白酶K的分泌水平,并对其的羊毛无氯剥鳞作用机制进行解析,旨在提高蛋白酶K的表达量并为高效酶法剥鳞技术的应用奠定基础。【方法】利用毕赤酵母表达系统对tprK基因进行异源表达,首次分析了影响蛋白质折叠和质量控制的分子伴侣Ssa1、Erj5、Sil1、Hac1、Kar2、Lhs1和Ydj1分别过表达对TPRK的表达量和酶活力的作用,并对TPRK处理的羊毛纤维效果进行分析。【结果】TPRK在毕赤酵母GS115中表达,其最适反应条件为65℃、pH 9.0,且具有良好的热稳定性和pH稳定性。过表达ssa1、hac1、erj5和sil1基因的重组菌株酶活分别提升了36.8%、20.0%、17.7%和14.8%。5 L发酵罐进行高密度发酵,诱导72 h后,TPRK的酶活达到77471.99 U/mL。在羊毛水解应用中TPRK可水解羊毛鳞片内层使鳞片逐渐剥落,起到剥鳞效果,并且最适水解条件为:TPRK添加量为300 U/mL、反应温度55℃、pH 9.0和反应时间2 h。【结论】过表达分子伴侣Ssa1能够有效提升TPRK的表达量,利用该TPRK处理羊毛纤维,可有效去除羊毛鳞片层,而对羊毛核心皮质层造成的损伤较小。

分子伴侣促进猪细小病毒VLPs可溶性表达及免疫原性研究

为了提高猪细小病毒可溶性VP2蛋白表达并研制病毒样颗粒(virus-like particles,VLPs)疫苗,试验经密码子优化后,合成PPV VP2基因序列,构建pET30a-PPV-VP2重组表达质粒,并与pKJE7、pGro7、pTf163种分子伴侣共同转化至E.coli BL21(DE3)感受态细胞中,经诱导后分析其可溶性表达水平并优化诱导条件,进行SDS-PAGE及Western-blot鉴定。通过Ni-NTA亲和层析纯化,透析除去咪唑进行体外自组装,通过动态光散射和透射电镜观察VLPs粒径和形态。用制备的PPV VLPs疫苗采用肌肉注射免疫和鼻滴免疫昆明鼠评价其免疫原性。结果表明:当pET30a-PPV-VP2与pTf16共表达时,以0.1 mmol/L IPTG、2 g/L l-阿拉伯糖、30℃培养16 h为诱导条件,VP2蛋白在大肠杆菌的可溶性表达最高。VP2蛋白经纯化后,可自组装成直径约为23.52 nm的PPV VLPs,其血凝效价为1∶2~9。表达的VLPs制备成疫苗,通过肌肉注射方式免疫昆明鼠,HI效价极显著高于猪细小病毒灭活疫苗(P<0.001),诱导小鼠产生较高水平的抗体(IgG1、IgG2a、IgG2b、IgG3)和细胞因子[γ干扰素(IFN-γ)和白细胞介素-4(IL-4)]。鼻滴免疫VLPs可以诱导产生高水平的分泌型免疫球蛋白(sIgA),VLPs无明显的副作用,具有一定的安全性。说明制备的PPV VLPs具有较好的免疫原性,诱导昆明鼠产生细胞免疫、体液免疫及平衡的Th1/Th2免疫应答,鼻滴免疫VLPs疫苗时无需佐剂辅助可诱导产生高效的黏膜免疫应答。

毕赤酵母外源蛋白分泌及折叠途径的改良进展

工业、农业和医药等领域常用的活性蛋白和工业酶大多数通过异源表达系统获得。毕赤酵母(Pichia pastoris)是优秀的外源蛋白表达宿主之一,以毕赤酵母为宿主的表达系统具有遗传稳定性好、翻译后修饰、蛋白表达和分泌水平高及生产成本低等优点,但在高效表达过程中外源蛋白过量聚集会导致目标蛋白不能正确折叠和有效分泌,从而影响蛋白表达水平。概述了通过信号肽优化、分子伴侣优化以及融合蛋白表达等分泌及折叠途径的改良,从而促进外源蛋白高效表达的研究进展。