The MORC2 p.S87L mutation reduces proliferation of pluripotent stem cells derived from a patient with the spinal muscular atrophy-like phenotype by inhibiting proliferation-related signaling pathways

Mutations in the microrchidia CW-type zinc finger protein 2(MORC2)gene are the causative agent of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2Z(CMT2Z),and the hotspot mutation p.S87L is associated with a more seve re spinal muscular atrophy-like clinical phenotype.The aims of this study were to determine the mechanism of the severe phenotype caused by the MORC2 p.S87L mutation and to explore potential treatment strategies.Epithelial cells were isolated from urine samples from a spinal muscular atrophy(SMA)-like patient[MORC2 p.S87L),a CMT2Z patient[MORC2 p.Q400R),and a healthy control and induced to generate pluripotent stem cells,which were then differentiated into motor neuron precursor cells.Next-generation RNA sequencing followed by KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes involved in the PI3K/Akt and MAP K/ERK signaling pathways were enriched in the p.S87L SMA-like patient group and were significantly downregulated in induced pluripotent stem cells.Reduced proliferation was observed in the induced pluripotent stem cells and motor neuron precursor cells derived from the p.S87L SMA-like patient group compared with the CMT2Z patient group and the healthy control.G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest was observed in induced pluripotent stem cells derived from the p.S87L SMA-like patient.MORC2 p.S87Lspecific antisense oligonucleotides(p.S87L-ASO-targeting)showed significant efficacy in improving cell prolife ration and activating the PI3K/Akt and MAP K/ERK pathways in induced pluripotent stem cells.Howeve r,p.S87L-ASO-ta rgeting did not rescue prolife ration of motor neuron precursor cells.These findings suggest that downregulation of the PI3K/Akt and MAP K/ERK signaling pathways leading to reduced cell proliferation and G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest in induced pluripotent stem cells might be the underlying mechanism of the severe p.S87L SMA-like phenotype.p.S87L-ASO-targeting treatment can alleviate disordered cell proliferation in the early stage of pluripotent stem cell induction.

Human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural stem cell exosomes improve blood-brain barrier function after intracerebral hemorrhage by activating astrocytes via PI3K/AKT/MCP-1 axis

Cerebral edema caused by blood-brain barrier injury after intracerebral hemorrhage is an important factor leading to poor prognosis.Human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural stem cell exosomes(hiPSC-NSC-Exos)have shown potential for brain injury repair in central nervous system diseases.In this study,we explored the impact of hiPSC-NSC-Exos on blood-brain barrier preservation and the underlying mechanism.Our results indicated that intranasal delivery of hiPSC-NSC-Exos mitigated neurological deficits,enhanced blood-brain barrier integrity,and reduced leukocyte infiltration in a mouse model of intracerebral hemorrhage.Additionally,hiPSC-NSC-Exos decreased immune cell infiltration,activated astrocytes,and decreased the secretion of inflammatory cytokines like monocyte chemoattractant protein-1,macrophage inflammatory protein-1α,and tumor necrosis factor-αpost-intracerebral hemorrhage,thereby improving the inflammatory microenvironment.RNA sequencing indicated that hiPSC-NSC-Exo activated the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in astrocytes and decreased monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 secretion,thereby improving blood-brain barrier integrity.Treatment with the PI3K/AKT inhibitor LY294002 or the monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 neutralizing agent C1142 abolished these effects.In summary,our findings suggest that hiPSC-NSC-Exos maintains blood-brain barrier integrity,in part by downregulating monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 secretion through activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in astrocytes.

Multiple factors to assist human-derived induced pluripotent stem cells to efficiently differentiate into midbrain dopaminergic neurons

Midbrain dopaminergic neurons play an important role in the etiology of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases.They also represent a potential source of transplanted cells for therapeutic applications.In vitro differentiation of functional midbrain dopaminergic neurons provides an accessible platform to study midbrain neuronal dysfunction and can be used to examine obstacles to dopaminergic neuronal development.Emerging evidence and impressive advances in human induced pluripotent stem cells,with tuned neural induction and differentiation protocols,makes the production of induced pluripotent stem cell-derived dopaminergic neurons feasible.Using SB431542 and dorsomorphin dual inhibitor in an induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural induction protocol,we obtained multiple subtypes of neurons,including 20%tyrosine hydroxylase-positive dopaminergic neurons.To obtain more dopaminergic neurons,we next added sonic hedgehog(SHH)and fibroblast growth factor 8(FGF8)on day 8 of induction.This increased the proportion of dopaminergic neurons,up to 75%tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons,with 15%tyrosine hydroxylase and forkhead box protein A2(FOXA2)co-expressing neurons.We further optimized the induction protocol by applying the small molecule inhibitor,CHIR99021(CHIR).This helped facilitate the generation of midbrain dopaminergic neurons,and we obtained 31-74%midbrain dopaminergic neurons based on tyrosine hydroxylase and FOXA2 staining.Thus,we have established three induction protocols for dopaminergic neurons.Based on tyrosine hydroxylase and FOXA2 immunostaining analysis,the CHIR,SHH,and FGF8 combined protocol produces a much higher proportion of midbrain dopaminergic neurons,which could be an ideal resource for tackling midbrain-related diseases.

Human pluripotent stem cell-derived kidney organoids:Current progress and challenges

Human pluripotent stem cell(hPSC)-derived kidney organoids share similarities with the fetal kidney.However,the current hPSC-derived kidney organoids have some limitations,including the inability to perform nephrogenesis and lack of a corticomedullary definition,uniform vascular system,and coordinated exit path-way for urinary filtrate.Therefore,further studies are required to produce hPSC-derived kidney organoids that accurately mimic human kidneys to facilitate research on kidney development,regeneration,disease modeling,and drug screening.In this review,we discussed recent advances in the generation of hPSC-derived kidney organoids,how these organoids contribute to the understanding of human kidney development and research in disease modeling.Additionally,the limitations,future research focus,and applications of hPSC-derived kidney organoids were highlighted.

Patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells with a MERTK mutation exhibit cell junction abnormalities and aberrant cellular differentiation potential

BACKGROUND Human induced pluripotent stem cell(hiPSC)technology is a valuable tool for generating patient-specific stem cells,facilitating disease modeling,and invest-igating disease mechanisms.However,iPSCs carrying specific mutations may limit their clinical applications due to certain inherent characteristics.AIM To investigate the impact of MERTK mutations on hiPSCs and determine whether hiPSC-derived extracellular vesicles(EVs)influence anomalous cell junction and differentiation potential.METHODS We employed a non-integrating reprogramming technique to generate peripheral blood-derived hiPSCs with and hiPSCs without a MERTK mutation.Chromo-somal karyotype analysis,flow cytometry,and immunofluorescent staining were utilized for hiPSC identification.Transcriptomics and proteomics were employed to elucidate the expression patterns associated with cell junction abnormalities and cellular differentiation potential.Additionally,EVs were isolated from the supernatant,and their RNA and protein cargos were examined to investigate the involvement of hiPSC-derived EVs in stem cell junction and differentiation.RESULTS The generated hiPSCs,both with and without a MERTK mutation,exhibited normal karyotype and expressed pluripotency markers;however,hiPSCs with a MERTK mutation demonstrated anomalous adhesion capability and differentiation potential,as confirmed by transcriptomic and proteomic profiling.Furthermore,hiPSC-derived EVs were involved in various biological processes,including cell junction and differentiation.CONCLUSION HiPSCs with a MERTK mutation displayed altered junction characteristics and aberrant differentiation potential.Furthermore,hiPSC-derived EVs played a regulatory role in various biological processes,including cell junction and differentiation.

Advances in the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into vascular cells

Blood vessels constitute a closed pipe system distributed throughout the body,transporting blood from the heart to other organs and delivering metabolic waste products back to the lungs and kidneys.Changes in blood vessels are related to many disorders like stroke,myocardial infarction,aneurysm,and diabetes,which are important causes of death worldwide.Translational research for new appro-aches to disease modeling and effective treatment is needed due to the huge socio-economic burden on healthcare systems.Although mice or rats have been widely used,applying data from animal studies to human-specific vascular physiology and pathology is difficult.The rise of induced pluripotent stem cells(iPSCs)provides a reliable in vitro resource for disease modeling,regenerative medicine,and drug discovery because they carry all human genetic information and have the ability to directionally differentiate into any type of human cells.This review summarizes the latest progress from the establishment of iPSCs,the strategies for differentiating iPSCs into vascular cells,and the in vivo trans-plantation of these vascular derivatives.It also introduces the application of these technologies in disease modeling,drug screening,and regenerative medicine.Additionally,the application of high-tech tools,such as omics analysis and high-throughput sequencing,in this field is reviewed.

Small extracellular vesicles secreted by induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells improve postoperative cognitive dysfunction in mice with diabetes

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction(POCD)is a common surgical complication.Diabetes mellitus(DM)increases risk of developing POCD after surgery.DM patients with POCD seriously threaten the quality of patients’life,however,the intrinsic mechanism is unclear,and the effective treatment is deficiency.Previous studies have demonstrated neuronal loss and reduced neurogenesis in the hippocampus in mouse models of POCD.In this study,we constructed a mouse model of DM by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin,and then induced postoperative cognitive dysfunction by transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion.We found that mouse models of DM-POCD exhibited the most serious cognitive impairment,as well as the most hippocampal neural stem cells(H-NSCs)loss and neurogenesis decline.Subsequently,we hypothesized that small extracellular vesicles secreted by induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells(iMSC-sEVs)might promote neurogenesis and restore cognitive function in patients with DM-POCD.iMSC-sEVs were administered via the tail vein beginning on day 2 after surgery,and then once every 3 days for 1 month thereafter.Our results showed that iMSC-sEVs treatment significantly recovered compromised proliferation and neuronal-differentiation capacity in H-NSCs,and reversed cognitive impairment in mouse models of DM-POCD.Furthermore,miRNA sequencing and qPCR showed miR-21-5p and miR-486-5p were the highest expression in iMSC-sEVs.We found iMSC-sEVs mainly transferred miR-21-5p and miR-486-5p to promote H-NSCs proliferation and neurogenesis.As miR-21-5p was demonstrated to directly targete Epha4 and CDKN2C,while miR-486-5p can inhibit FoxO1 in NSCs.We then demonstrated iMSC-sEVs can transfer miR-21-5p and miR-486-5p to inhibit EphA4,CDKN2C,and FoxO1 expression in H-NSCs.Collectively,these results indicate significant H-NSC loss and neurogenesis reduction lead to DM-POCD,the application of iMSC-sEVs may represent a novel cell-free therapeutic tool for diabetic patients with postoperative cognitive dysfunction.

Neural lineage differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells:Advances in disease modeling

Brain diseases affect 1 in 6 people worldwide.These diseases range from acute neurological conditions such as stroke to chronic neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease.Recent advancements in tissue-engineered brain disease models have overcome many of the different shortcomings associated with the various animal models,tissue culture models,and epidemiologic patient data that are commonly used to study brain disease.One innovative method by which to model human neurological disease is via the directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells(hPSCs)to neural lineages including neurons,astrocytes,and oligodendrocytes.Three-dimensional models such as brain organoids have also been derived from hPSCs,offering more physiological relevance due to their incorporation of various cell types.As such,brain organoids can better model the pathophysiology of neural diseases observed in patients.In this review,we will emphasize recent developments in hPSC-based tissue culture models of neurological disorders and how they are being used to create neural disease models.

Human pluripotent stem cell-derivedβcells:Truly immature isletβcells for type 1 diabetes therapy?

A century has passed since the Nobel Prize winning discovery of insulin,which still remains the mainstay treatment for type 1 diabetes mellitus(T1DM)to this day.True to the words of its discoverer Sir Frederick Banting,“insulin is not a cure for diabetes,it is a treatment”,millions of people with T1DM are dependent on daily insulin medications for life.Clinical donor islet transplantation has proven that T1DM is curable,however due to profound shortages of donor islets,it is not a mainstream treatment option for T1DM.Human pluripotent stem cell derived insulin-secreting cells,pervasively known as stem cell-derivedβcells(SC-βcells),are a promising alternative source and have the potential to become a T1DM treatment through cell replacement therapy.Here we briefly review how isletβcells develop and mature in vivo and several types of reported SC-βcells produced using different ex vivo protocols in the last decade.Although some markers of maturation were expressed and glucose stimulated insulin secretion was shown,the SC-βcells have not been directly compared to their in vivo counterparts,generally have limited glucose response,and are not yet fully matured.Due to the presence of extra-pancreatic insulin-expressing cells,and ethical and technological issues,further clarification of the true nature of these SC-βcells is required.

Current overview of induced pluripotent stem cell-based blood-brain barrier-on-a-chip

BACKGROUND Induced pluripotent stem cells(iPSCs)show great ability to differentiate into any tissue,making them attractive candidates for pathophysiological investigations.The rise of organ-on-a-chip technology in the past century has introduced a novel way to make in vitro cell cultures that more closely resemble their in vivo environments,both structural and functionally.The literature still lacks consensus on the best conditions to mimic the blood-brain barrier(BBB)for drug screening and other personalized therapies.The development of models based on BBB-on-achip using iPSCs is promising and is a potential alternative to the use of animals in research.AIM To analyze the literature for BBB models on-a-chip involving iPSCs,describe the microdevices,the BBB in vitro construction,and applications.METHODS We searched for original articles indexed in PubMed and Scopus that used iPSCs to mimic the BBB and its microenvironment in microfluidic devices.Thirty articles were identified,wherein only 14 articles were finally selected according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria.Data compiled from the selected articles were organized into four topics:(1)Microfluidic devices design and fabrication;(2)characteristics of the iPSCs used in the BBB model and their differentiation conditions;(3)BBB-on-a-chip reconstruction process;and(4)applications of BBB microfluidic three-dimensional models using iPSCs.RESULTS This study showed that BBB models with iPSCs in microdevices are quite novel in scientific research.Important technological advances in this area regarding the use of commercial BBB-on-a-chip were identified in the most recent articles by different research groups.Conventional polydimethylsiloxane was the most used material to fabricate in-house chips(57%),whereas few studies(14.3%)adopted polymethylmethacrylate.Half the models were constructed using a porous membrane made of diverse materials to separate the channels.iPSC sources were divergent among the studies,but the main line used was IMR90-C4 from human fetal lung fibroblast(41.2%).The cells were differentiated through diverse and complex processes either to endothelial or neural cells,wherein only one study promoted differentiation inside the chip.The construction process of the BBB-on-a-chip involved previous coating mostly with fibronectin/collagen Ⅳ(39.3%),followed by cell seeding in single cultures(36%)or co-cultures(64%)under controlled conditions,aimed at developing an in vitro BBB that mimics the human BBB for future applications.CONCLUSION This review evidenced technological advances in the construction of BBB models using iPSCs.Nonetheless,a definitive BBB-on-a-chip has not yet been achieved,hindering the applicability of the models.

Human pluripotent stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles:From now to the future

Extracellular vesicles(EVs)are nanometric particles that enclose cell-derived bioactive molecules in a lipid bilayer and serve as intercellular communication tools.Accordingly,in various biological contexts,EVs are reported to engage in immune modulation,senescence,and cell proliferation and differentiation.Therefore,EVs could be key elements for potential off-the-shelf cell-free therapy.Little has been studied regarding EVs derived from human pluripotent stem cells(hPSC-EVs),even though hPSCs offer good opportunities for induction of tissue regeneration and unlimited proliferative ability.In this review article,we provide an overview of studies using hPSC-EVs,focusing on identifying the conditions in which the cells are cultivated for the isolation of EVs,how they are characterized,and applications already demonstrated.The topics reported in this article highlight the incipient status of the studies in the field and the significance of hPSC-EVs’prospective applications as PSC-derived cell-free therapy products.

Transplantation of human induced pluripotent stem cell derived keratinocytes accelerates deep second-degree burn wound healing

BACKGROUND Current evidence shows that human induced pluripotent stem cells(hiPSCs)can effectively differentiate into keratinocytes(KCs),but its effect on skin burn healing has not been reported.AIM To observe the effects of hiPSCs-derived KCs transplantation on skin burn healing in mice and to preliminarily reveal the underlying mechanisms.METHODS An analysis of differentially expressed genes in burn wounds based on GEO datasets GSE140926,and GSE27186 was established.A differentiation medium containing retinoic acid and bone morphogenetic protein 4 was applied to induce hiPSCs to differentiate into KCs.The expression of KCs marker proteins was detected using immunofluorescence staining.A model of a C57BL/6 mouse with deep cutaneous second-degree burn was created,and then phosphate buffered saline(PBS),hiPSCs-KCs,or hiPSCs-KCs with knockdown of COL7A1 were injected around the wound surface.The wound healing,re-epithelialization,engraftment of hiPSCs-KCs into wounds,proinflammatory factor level,and the NF-κB pathway proteins were assessed by hematoxylin-eosin staining,carboxifluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester(CFSE)fluorescence staining,enzyme linked immunosorbent assay,and Western blotting on days 3,7,and 14 after the injection,respectively.Moreover,the effects of COL7A1 knockdown on the proliferation and migration of hiPSCs-KCs were confirmed by immunohistochemistry,EdU,Transwell,and damage repair assays.RESULTS HiPSCs-KCs could express the hallmark proteins of KCs.COL7A1 was down-regulated in burn wound tissues and highly expressed in hiPSCs-KCs.Transplantation of hiPSCs-KCs into mice with burn wounds resulted in a significant decrease in wound area,an increase in wound re-epithelialization,a decrease in proinflammatory factors content,and an inhibition of NF-κB pathway activation compared to the PBS group.The in vitro assay showed that COL7A1 knockdown could rescue the inhibition of hiPSCs-KCs proliferation and migration,providing further evidence that COL7A1 speeds up burn wound healing by limiting cell proliferation and migration.CONCLUSION In deep,second-degree burn wounds,COL7A1 can promote KC proliferation and migration while also suppressing the inflammatory response.

The combined application of stem cells and three-dimensional bioprinting scaffolds for the repair of spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury is considered one of the most difficult injuries to repair and has one of the worst prognoses for injuries to the nervous system.Following surgery,the poor regenerative capacity of nerve cells and the generation of new scars can make it very difficult for the impaired nervous system to restore its neural functionality.Traditional treatments can only alleviate secondary injuries but cannot fundamentally repair the spinal cord.Consequently,there is a critical need to develop new treatments to promote functional repair after spinal cord injury.Over recent years,there have been seve ral developments in the use of stem cell therapy for the treatment of spinal cord injury.Alongside significant developments in the field of tissue engineering,three-dimensional bioprinting technology has become a hot research topic due to its ability to accurately print complex structures.This led to the loading of three-dimensional bioprinting scaffolds which provided precise cell localization.These three-dimensional bioprinting scaffolds co uld repair damaged neural circuits and had the potential to repair the damaged spinal cord.In this review,we discuss the mechanisms underlying simple stem cell therapy,the application of different types of stem cells for the treatment of spinal cord injury,and the different manufa cturing methods for three-dimensional bioprinting scaffolds.In particular,we focus on the development of three-dimensional bioprinting scaffolds for the treatment of spinal cord injury.

One-step cell biomanufacturing platform:porous gelatin microcarrier beads promote human embryonic stem cell-derived midbrain dopaminergic progenitor cell differentiation in vitro and survival after transplantation in vivo

Numerous studies have shown that cell replacement therapy can replenish lost cells and rebuild neural circuitry in animal models of Parkinson’s disease.Transplantation of midbrain dopaminergic progenitor cells is a promising treatment for Parkinson’s disease.However,transplanted cells can be injured by mechanical damage during handling and by changes in the transplantation niche.Here,we developed a one-step biomanufacturing platform that uses small-aperture gelatin microcarriers to produce beads carrying midbrain dopaminergic progenitor cells.These beads allow midbrain dopaminergic progenitor cell differentiation and cryopreservation without digestion,effectively maintaining axonal integrity in vitro.Importantly,midbrain dopaminergic progenitor cell bead grafts showed increased survival and only mild immunoreactivity in vivo compared with suspended midbrain dopaminergic progenitor cell grafts.Overall,our findings show that these midbrain dopaminergic progenitor cell beads enhance the effectiveness of neuronal cell transplantation.

Genetic Correction and Hepatic Differentiation of Hemophilia B-specific Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Objective To genetically correct a disease-causing point mutation in human induced pluripotent stem cells （iPSCs） derived from a hemophilia B patient. Methods First, the disease-causing mutation was detected by sequencing the encoding area of human coagulation factor IX （F IX） gene. Genomic DNA was extracted from the iPSCs, and the primers were designed to amplify the eight exons of F IX. Next, the point mutation in those iPSCs was genetically corrected using CRISPR/Cas9 technology in the presence of a 129-nucleotide homologous repair template that contained two synonymous mutations. Then, top 8 potential off-target sites were subsequently analyzed using Sanger sequencing. Finally, the corrected clones were differentiated into hepatocyte-like cells, and the secretion of F IX was validated by immunocytochemistry and ELISA assay.Results The cell line bore a missense mutation in the 6th coding exon （c.676 C〉T） of F IX gene. Correction of the point mutation was achieved via CRISPR/Cas9 technology in situ with a high efficacy at about 22% （10/45） and no off-target effects detected in the corrected iPSC clones. F IX secretion, which was further visualized by immunocytochemistry and quantified by ELISA in vitro, reached about 6 ng/ml on day 21 of differentiation procedure. Conclusions Mutations in human disease-specific iPSCs could be precisely corrected by CRISPR/Cas9 technology, and corrected cells still maintained hepatic differentiation capability. Our findings might throw a light on iPSC-based personalized therapies in the clinical application, especially for hemophilia B.

Efficient generation of hepatocyte-like cells from human induced pluripotent stem cells

Human induced pluripotent stem （iPS） cells are similar to embryonic stem （ES） cells, and can proliferate intensively and differentiate into a variety of cell types. However, the hepatic differentiation of human iPS cells has not yet been reported. In this report, human iPS cells were induced to differentiate into hepatic cells by a stepwise protocol. The expression of liver cell markers and liver-related functions of the human iPS cell-derived cells were monitored and compared with that of differentiated human ES cells and primary human hepatocytes. Approximately 60% of the differentiated human iPS cells at day 7 expressed hepatic markers alpha fetoprotein and Alb. The differentiated cells at day 21 exhibited liver cell functions including albumin Asecretion, glycogen synthesis, urea production and inducible cytochrome P450 activity. The expression of hepatic markers and fiver-related functions of the iPS cellderived hepatic ceils were comparable to that of the human ES cell-derived hepatic cells. These results show that human iPS cells, which are similar to human ES cells, can be efficiently induced to differentiate into hepatocyte-like cells.

Generation of male germ cells from induced pluripotent stem cells （iPS cells）： an in vitro and in vivo study

Recent studies have reported that induced pluripotent stem （iPS） cells from mice and humans can differentiate into primordial germ cells. However, whether iPS cells are capable of producing male germ cells is not known. The objective of this study was to investigate the differentiation potential of mouse iPS cells into spermatogonial stem cells and late-stage male germ cells. We used an approach that combines in vitrodifferentiation and in vivotransplantation. Embryoid bodies （EBs） were obtained from iPS cells using leukaemia inhibitor factor （LIF）-free medium. Quantitative PCR revealed a decrease in Oct4 expression and an increase in StraSand Vasa mRNA in the EBs derived from iPS cells, iPS cell-derived EBs were induced by retinoic acid to differentiate into spermatogonial stem cells （SSCs）, as evidenced by their expression of VASA, as well as CDH1 and GFRal, which are markers of SSCs. Furthermore, these germ cells derived from iPS cells were transplanted into recipient testes of mice that had been pre-treated with busulfan. Notably, iPS cell-derived SSCs were able to differentiate into male germ cells ranging from spermatogonia to round spermatids, as shown by VASA and SCP3 expression. This study demonstrates that iPS cells have the potential to differentiate into late-stage male germ cells. The derivation of male germ cells from iPS cells has potential applications in the treatment of male infertility and provides a model for uncovering the molecular mechanisms underlying male germ cell development.

Current methods for the maturation of induced pluripotent stem cellderived cardiomyocytes

Induced pluripotent stem cells(iPSCs) were first generated by Yamanaka and colleagues over a decade ago. Since then, iPSCs have been successfully differentiated into many distinct cell types, enabling tissue-, disease-, and patientspecific in vitro modelling. Cardiovascular disease is the greatest cause of mortality worldwide but encompasses rarer disorders of conduction and myocardial function for which a cellular model of study is ideal. Although methods to differentiate iPSCs into beating cardiomyocytes(iPSC-CMs) have recently been adequately optimized and commercialized, the resulting cells remain largely immature with regards to their structure and function,demonstrating fetal gene expression, disorganized morphology, reliance on predominantly glycolytic metabolism and contractile characteristics that differ from those of adult cardiomyocytes. As such, disease modelling using iPSC-CMs may be inaccurate and of limited utility. However, this limitation is widely recognized, and numerous groups have made substantial progress in addressing this problem. This review highlights successful methods that have been developed for the maturation of human iPSC-CMs using small molecules,environmental manipulation and 3-dimensional(3 D) growth approaches.

Clinical translation of bioartificial liver support systems with human pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatic cells

There is currently a pressing need for alternative the-rapies to liver transplantation. The number of patients waiting for a liver transplant is substantially higher than the number of transplantable donor livers, resulting in a long waiting time and a high waiting list mortality. An extracorporeal liver support system is one possible approach to overcome this problem. However, the ideal cell source for developing bioartificial liver(BAL) support systems has yet to be determined. Recent advancements in stem cell technology allow researchers to generate highly functional hepatocyte-like cells from human pluripotent stem cells(h PSCs). In this mini-review, we summarize previous clinical trials with different BAL systems, and discuss advantages of and potential obstacles to utilizing h PSC-derived hepatic cells in clinical-scale BAL systems.

Methods of induced pluripotent stem cells for clinical application

Reprograming somatic cells using exogenetic gene expression represents a groundbreaking step in regenerative medicine. Induced pluripotent stem cells(i PSCs) are expected to yield novel therapies with the potential to solve many issues involving incurable diseases. In particular, applying i PSCs clinically holds the promise of addressing the problems of immune rejection and ethics that have hampered the clinical applications of embryonic stem cells. However, as i PSC research has progressed, new problems have emerged that need to be solved before the routine clinical application of i PSCs can become established. In this review, we discuss the current technologies and future problems of human i PSC generation methods for clinical use.