Crustal strain rates of southeastern Tibetan Plateau derived from GPS measurements and implications to lithospheric deformation of the Shan-Thai terrane

The link between the crustal deformation and mantle kinematics in the Tibetan Plateau has been well known thanks to dense GPS measurements and the relatively detailed anisotropy structure of the lithospheric mantle.However, whether the crust deforms coherently with the upper mantle in the Shan-Thai terrane(also known as the Shan-Thai block) remains unclear.In this study, we investigate the deformation patterns through strain rate tensors in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau derived from the latest GPS measurements and find that in the Shan-Thai terrane the upper crust may be coupled with the lower crust and the upper mantle.The GPS-derived strain rate tensors are in agreement with the slipping patterns and rates of major strike-slip faults in the region.The most prominent shear zone, whose shear strain rates are larger than 100×10^(–9) a^(–1), is about 1000-km-long in the west, trending northward along Sagaing fault to the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis in the north, with maximum rate of compressive strain up to –240×10^(–9) a^(–1).A secondary shear zone along the Anninghe-Xiaojiang Fault in the east shows segmented shear zones near several conjunctions.While the strain rate along RRF is relatively low due to the low slip rate and low seismicity there, in Lijiang and Tengchong several local shear zones are present under an extensional dominated stress regime that is related to normal faulting earthquakes and volcanism, respectively.Furthermore, by comparing GPS-derived strain rate tensors with earthquake focal mechanisms, we find that 75.8%(100 out of 132) of the earthquake T-axes are consistent with the GPS-derived strain rates.Moreover, we find that the Fast Velocity Direction(FVDs) at three depths beneath the Shan-Thai terrane are consistent with extensional strain rate with gradually increasing angular differences, which are likely resulting from the basal shear forces induced by asthenospheric flow associated with the oblique subduction of the India plate beneath the Shan-Thai terrane.Therefore, in this region the upper crust deformation may be coherent with that of the lower crust and the lithospheric mantle.

Simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature: graphical representation

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NON-CONTACT MEASUREMENT SYSTEM OF FREEFORM SURFACE AND NURBS RECONSTRUCTION OF MEASUREMENT POINTS

Based on the development of the non-contact measurement system of free-formsurface, NURBS reconstruction of measurement points of freeform surface is effectively realized bymodifying the objective function and recursive procedure and calculating the optimum number ofcontrol points. The reconstruction precision is evaluated through Ja-cobi's transformation method.The feasibility of the measurement system and effectiveness of the reconstruction algorithm aboveare proved by experiment.

Wireless Strain Measurement Based on a Microstrip Patch Antenna

Wireless interrogation of a rectangular microstrip patch antenna for strain measurement is investigated by simulations.To analyze the antenna performance,a microstrip line-feeding patch antenna at 10 GHz is designed.A patch antenna wirelessly fed by a horn is proposed to measure the strain.The direction information of strain detected by the patch antenna is also considered.The strain can be detected both in the width and length directions.It is shown that the strain can be measured wirelessly using a standard horn antenna.This kind of wireless strain-sensing technique offers significant potential for wireless structural health monitoring(SHM),especially for high-end equipment.

Carrier fringe method of moire interferometry for tiny strain measurements in micro-field

In this paper, we demonstrate a new optical method for tiny strain measurements based on the principle of carrier fringes of moire interferometry. A cross-line grating with frequency of 1200 lp/mm is replicated on the specimen surface, and the strain can be deduced from the changes in carrier fringes before and after the deformation of an object. Four coherent laser beams are used to obtain the carrier fringe patterns of field U and V. Both theoretical analysis and numerical simulation indicate that the ideal accuracy of strain can be controlled within a range of ±1με. Case study of a plane extension experiment shows that the measurement accuracy of strain can be controlled within the range of ±10με. The average strain values of every row of field U and every column of field V can be obtained by using this method, and approximated strain of every pixel in the whole-field can be further acquired, and thus it is possible to measure tiny strains occurred in a micro-field. The technology in this paper can provide comprehensive information for analyzing related mechanical content in the field of MEMS.

Strain Measurement on the Toroidal Field (TF) Coil Cases

The stress-strain state of the structure is a matter of interest to designer. The strain measurement of superconducting magnets at cryogenic temperature is a specific technique. Based on strain measurement of TF coil case for EAST, this paper presents a measuring technique at cryogenic temperature and on intense magnetic field. The compensation methods for both temperature and magnetic field effects of the gauges, together with the measured results are involved, and the discussions of the measured results are given in the paper.

Strain Effect of Manganin Transverse Piezoresistive Gauge and Measurement of Dynamic Transverse Stresses

Manganin piezoresistive gauges have been extensively used in dynamic stress measurement for decades.It is noted,however,that when used to measure transverse stresses,considerable strain effect is caused as the consequence of change of electrical resistance resulted from bending of wires in the longitudinal-strain-experiencing sensing element of the gauge,a phenomenon discussed in this paper theoretically as well as experimentally.This effect yields unwanted signals to blend with output piezoresistive signals and is not negligible,hence decreases measurement accuracy sizably if not properly handled.To overcome this drawback,a new type of manganin transverse piezoresistive gauge has been developed by authors of this paper,which can reduce the resistance increment to acceptable low level so as to effectively bring the adverse effect under control.

In-situ strain measurement and error analysis of arc welding with 2D digital image correlation

The deformation and residual stress generated by the welding process can seriously affect the use of components.As a result,it is very important to understand the evolution of stress and strain during the welding process.The strain measurement method based on digital image correlation(DIC)is an excellent method to detect welding strain and residual stress.The out-of-plane translation and out-of-plane rotation introduce errors to the two-dimensional DIC.In this paper,the causes of errors are analyzed theoretically,and the formulas of errors caused by the out-of-plane displacement and the out-of-plane rotation are derived.The out-of-plane translation experiment and the out-of-plane rotation experiment were carried out to verify the theory,and the experimental results are consistent with the theoretical analysis results.The error caused by the out-of-plane translation can be reduced by increasing the object distance;the error caused by the out-of-plane rotation is greatly affected by the rotation angle.

Instantaneous Creep in Face-centered Cubic Metals at Ultra- low Strain Rates by a High-resolution Strain Measurement

Instantaneous creep in face-centered cubic metals, 5N Al（99.999%）, 2N Al （99%） and 4N Cu （99.99%） with different grain sizes, was firstly investigated by sudden stress-change experiments at ultra- low strain rates ε ≤10-10 s-1 and temperature T 〈 0.32 Tn. The experimental results indicate that the observed instantaneous creep is strongly dependent on grain size, the concentration of impurity, and stacking fault energy. Creep in high-purity aluminum, 5N Al, with a very large grain size, d 〉 1600μm, shows non-viscous behavior, and is controlled by the recovery of dislocations in the boundary of dislocation cells. On the other hand, for 5N A1 with a small grain size, d=30μm, and low-purity aluminum, 2N A1, with d8= 25μm, creep shows viscous behavior and may be related to ＇low temperature grain boundary sliding＇. For high-purity copper, 4N Cu, with d= 40 grn and lower stacking fault energy, creep shows a non-viscous behavior, and is controlled by the recovery process of dislocations. For all of the samples, creep shows anelastic behavior.

STRAIN MEASUREMENT IN THE SMART COMPOSITE

The smart composite structure is a new type of structure developed in recent years. It can be used in aircraft or some other important devices. The smart composite structure in which some sensors, actuators and other components are embedded can perform the tasks such damage evaluation, strain measurement, changing stress and suppressing vibration by itself. In the Performance of the tasks above, many parameters must be measured, among which the measurement of strain field is very important. In this paper, some distributed and quasi-distributed embedding optic fiber strain sensors are introduced, and their specialities are discussed.

A Dual-Mode Bow Tie Optical Fiber Sensor for Measurement of Axial Strain

An optical fiber strain sensor utilizing the mode-mode interference of LP01x, and LPJ11x modes in bow tie optical fibers is described. The heterodyne interference caused by frequency modulation of laser diode (LD) with ramp injection current is used to realize the detection of linear phase. Experimental results show a resolution of about 2% of one fringe corresponding to a strain of 2.9m.

Easy calibration method of vision system for in-situ measurement of strain of thin films

An easy calibration method was presented for in-situ measurement of displacement in the order of nanometer during micro-tensile test for thin films by using CCD camera as a sensing device. The calibration of the sensing camera in the system is a central element part to measure displacement in the order of nanometer using images taken with the camera. This was accomplished by modeling the optical projection through the camera lens and relative locations between the object and camera in 3D space. A set of known 3D points on a plane where the film is located on is projected to an image plane as input data. These points, known as a calibration points, are then used to estimate the projection parameters of the camera. In the measurement system of the micro-scale by CCD camera, the calibration data acquisition and one-to-one matching steps between the image and 3D planes need precise data extraction procedures and repetitive user's operation to calibrate the measuring devices. The lack of the robust image feature extraction and easy matching prevent the practical use of these methods. A data selection method was proposed to overcome these limitations and offer an easy and convenient calibration of a vision system that has the CCD camera and the 3D reference plane with calibration marks of circular type on the surface of the plane. The method minimizes the user's intervention such as the fine tuning of illumination system and provides an efficient calibration method of the vision system for in-situ axial displacement measurement of the micro-tensile materials.

Strain Measurement for Hollow Projectiles During Its Penetration of Concrete Targets

Gives a new technique to measure the dynamic deformation behavior and strain development of a hollow steel projectile during its penetration of concrete targets. Direct strain measurement was performed by applying strain gages attached to the inner walls of the hollow projectile, linked with on-board testing and storage recorder. This on-board test-record system is easy to operate, cost-effective and can provide reasonable, accurate and detailed information. Obverse ballistic experiments were carried out on ogival-nose hollow projectiles normally impacting concrete targets at velocities from 150 m/s to 300 m/s. The deformation process of projectiles was measured, recorded and played back. Profiles of voltage-time relationship were successively obtained and transfered to strain-time relationship with the aid of calibration tables. It was found that projectiles go through a series of compression and tension deformations intermittently. Relationships between strain development and projectile deformation process were discussed.

APPLICATION OF GRATING DIFFRACTION IN STRAIN MEASUREMENT

In this paper a new technique for measuring strain is presented. Using grating as the strain sensor, we can obtain strain and stress components by measuring the deformation of the space position of diffraction spots. The cost of the holographic grating by embossing is much reduced. By using the video and computer techniques the strain and stress values can be obtained automatically.

Non-contact measurement and multi-objective analysis of drilling temperature when drilling B_4C reinforced aluminum composites

Non-contact measurements of machining temperatures were performed with optical pyrometer when drilling particle（B4C） reinforced metal matrix composites（MMCs） with different drills. The effect of particle content, cutting speed, feed rate and tool material on the maximum drilling temperature was investigated. The drilling parameters were optimized based on multiple performance characteristics in terms of the maximum cutting temperature and tool wear. According to the results, the most influential control factors on the cutting temperatures are found to be particle fraction, feed rate and interaction between the cutting speed and particle content, respectively. The influences of the cutting speed and drill material on the drilling temperature are found to be relatively lower for the used range of parameters. Minimum cutting temperatures are obtained with lower particle fraction and cutting speed, with relatively higher feed rates and carbide tools. The results reveal that optimal combination of the drilling parameters can be used to obtain both minimum cutting temperature and tool wear.

A dual measurement method of strain and temperature

With the rapid development of China's foreign trade, the coastal and inland waterway transport has been increased rapidly. The potential market for marine engines is more and more obvious. The measurement of the engine temperature and strain becomes very important. The fluorescence fiber sensors are broadly used to measure temperature, concentration, and pH value, etc. The fluorescence sensing systems are based on different principles, namely fluorescence intensity, fluorescence intensity ratio, and fluorescence lifetime. The fluorescence lifetime is an effective parameter for sensing purpose, because it is independent of the intensity of the pumping source and does not need expensive narrow-band filters. An experiment system has been established, in which some samples were produced to measure the fluorescence lifetime and temperature characteristics and the relationship of the strain and temperature versus the fluorescence lifetime was achieved at the same time. The experiment result was fitted and analyzed. The test results show that the fluorescence lifetime decreases with the increasing of temperature. The change of fluorescence lifetime with the strain is inconspicuous comparing to that with the temperature.

Experimental and Numerical Study of the Effect of Surround Protection Technique on the Strain Measurement for Offshore Jacket Platform

For strain measurement on offshore jacket platform in deep water, waterproof of strain foil is always an important issue, especially, due to the high pressure in deep water. The waterproof is difficult in two places, one is between the matrix structure and the protection structure, and another is between the lead wires and the protection structure. The surround protection technique discussed in this paper is conventional and ideal, and can be operative for a long time, up to five years. In this method, a metal case and tube is added on the local position, which increases the local rigidity, but the effect on the measurement of strain is not well studied. In this paper, the effect of the surround protection technique on the strain measurement is studied by using numerical and experimental methods, and the results show that the measurement error is well in the range permitted by engineering practice.

Machine Vision for Non-Contact Automated Countersink Measurement

The slug rivet is widely used in wing assembly due to its longer fatigue life and better sealing performance compared with other connection technologies.As a countersink with dual-angle is widely adopted for this type of connection,the countersink diameter and depth are key factors that affect assembly quality.Therefore,it is of great importance to efficiently inspect the countersink quality to ensure high accuracy.However,contact measurements are susceptible to the loss of accuracy due to cutting debris and lube build-up,while the hole-scanning method using laser profilometry is time consuming and complex.In this paper,a non-contact method for countersink diameter and depth measurement based on a machine vision system is proposed.The countersink diameter can be directly measured by the machine vision system,while the countersink depth is determined through the countersink diameter indirectly.First,by means of image processing technology together with an improved edge detection algorithm,the countersink diameter can be obtained.Then,a 3D microscope is employed to measure the countersink depth,which helps to model the countersink.As a result,once the countersink diameter is measured,so is the depth.The experimentation demonstrated that this method has strong feasibility and enables time saving,which is conducive to improve the riveting efficiency.

A LASER-SCANNING NON-CONTACT MEASURING METHOD FOR ROUNDNESS ERRORS

利用激光狭缝扫描原理和光电传感技术，提出了一种用于测量大型回转体类零件圆度误差的激光扫描非接触测量方法和测量系统。本文详细论述了测量系统及其测量原理、工件安装偏心误差的分离技术和计算机实时数据处理系统，实验结果证实了这种测量方法的可行性。

Review of Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry(ESPI) for Three Dimensional Displacement Measurement

Three dimensional（3D） displacements, which can be translated further into 3D strain, are key parameters tor design, manufacturing and quality control. Using different optical setups, phase-shift methods, and algorithms, several different 3D electronic speckle pattern interferometry（ESPl） systems for displacement and strain measurements have been achieved and commercialized. This paper provides a review of the recent developments in ESPI systems for 3D displacement and strain measurement. After an overview of the fundamentals of ESP! theory, temporal phase-shift, and spatial phase-shift techniques, 3D deformation measurements by the temporal phase-shift ESPI system, which is suited well for static measurement, and by the spatial phase-shift ESPI system, which is particularly useful for dynamic measurement, are discussed. For each method, the basic theory, a brief derivation and different optical layouts are presented. The state of art application, potential and limitation of the ESPI systems are shown and demonstrated.