A Detailed Study on the Equal Arrival Time Surface Effect in Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglows

Due to the relativistic motion of gamma-ray burst remnant and its deceleration in the circumburst medium, the equal arrival time surfaces at any moment are not spherical, rather, they are distorted ellipsoids. This will leave some imprints in the afterglows. We study the effect of equal arrival time surfaces numerically for various circumstances, i.e., isotropic fireballs, collimated jets, density jumps and energy injection events. For each case, a direct comparison is made between including and not including the effect. For isotropic fireballs and jets viewed on axis, the effect slightly hardens the spectra and postpones the peak time of the afterglows, but does not change the shapes of the spectra and light curves significantly. In the cases of a density jump or an energy injection, the effect smears out the variations in the afterglows markedly.

Effects of Magnetic Fields on Neutrino-dominated Accretion Model for Gamma-ray Bursts

Many models of gamma-ray bursts suggest a common central engine; a black hole of several solar masses accreting matter from a disk at an accretion rate from 0.01 to 10 M⊙s^-1, the inner region of the disk is cooled by neutrino emission and large amounts of its binding energy are liberated, which could trigger the fireball. We improve the neutrino- dominated accreting flows by including the effects of magnetic fields. We find that more than half of the liberated energy can be extracted directly by the large-scale magnetic fields in the disk, and it turns out that the temperature of the disk is a bit lower than the neutrino-dominated accreting flows without magnetic field. Therefore, the outflows are magnetically-dominated rather than neutrino dominated. In our model, the neutrino mechanism can fuel some GRBs （not the brightest ones）, but cannot fuel X-ray flares. The magnetic processes （both BZ and electromagnetic luminosity from a disk） are viable mechanisms for most of GRBs and their following X-ray flares.

Not enough evidence to support the correlation between gamma-ray bursts and foreground galaxy clusters in the Swift Era

The correlation between distant Gamma-Ray Bursts （GRBs） and foreground galaxy clusters is re-examined by using the well localized （with an accuracy down to a few arcsec） Swift/XRT GRBs. The galaxy clusters are compiled from both the X-ray selected ROSAT brightest cluster sample （BCS） and the BCS extension by requiring δ ≥ 0° and b ≥ 20°. The Swift/XRT GRBs fulfilling the above selection criteria are cross-correlated with the clusters. Both Nearest-Neighbor analysis and the angular two-point cross-correlation function show that there is not enough evidence supporting the correlation between the GRBs and foreground clusters. We suggest that the non-correlation is probably related to the GRB number-flux relation slope.

Statistical studies of optically dark gamma-ray bursts in the Swift era

We compare the properties of optically dark GRBs, defined by the optical-to-X- ray spectral indexβox 〈 0.5, and normal ones discovered by the Swift satellite before the year 2008 in a statistical way, using data collected from the literature and online databases. Our sample includes 200 long bursts, 19 short bursts, and 10 with measured high redshifts （z ≥ 4）. The ratio of dark bursts is found to be -10% - 20%, and is similar among long bursts, short ones, and the high-z sub-sample. The result for long bursts is consistent with both the pre-Swift sample and studies by other authors on smaller Swift samples. The existence of dark short GRBs is pointed out for the first time. The X-ray derived hydrogen column densities of dark GRBs clearly prefer large values compared with those of normal bursts. This supports the dust extinction scenario as the main cause of dark GRBs. Other possibilities like very high redshifts and non-standard emission mechanisms are less likely, although not fully excluded.

Is BZB J1450+5201 the most distant gamma-ray BL Lacertae object?

BL Lacertae （BL Lac） objects at high redshifts （z ≥ 2） are rarely detected. Through careful analysis of its Sloan Digital Sky Survey spectrum, BZB J1450＋5201 is confirmed to be a high-z BL Lac object with z ≥ 2.471 by identifying the Lyα 1216 and CIV 1548/1550 absorption lines. This indicates that BZB J1450＋5201 is the most distant BL Lac object discovered to date. Careful analysis of the five-year Fermi-LAT data of 2FGL J1451.0＋5159 shows that its γ-ray emission is robust with a confidence level of 6.2σ at 1-3 GeV and 6.7σ at 3-10 GeV. This analysis with the five-year data overcomes confusion with its bright neighbor, which is a problem when analyzing the two-year data. In addition, 2FGL J 1451.0＋5159 is confirmed to be associated with BZB J1450＋5201 using the five-year data. The analysis of multiwavelength data, from radio to γ-ray energies, indicates that BZB J1450＋5201 is an intermediate synchrotron peaked （ISP） source. Its multiwavelength properties are consistent with distributions of other ISP sources at lower redshifts in the second Fermi-LAT AGN catalog. The pure synchrotron self-Compton （SSC） model seems to be disfavored, but the scattering of weak external emission plus the SSC process can provide a satisfactory description of the broadband emission.

The multiwavelength emission from the gamma-ray binary LS I + 61 303

This paper presents a hadronic dominated jet model to investigate multi- wavelength emission from the microquasar LS I ＋61 303. In this scenario, we take into account evolutions of the primary particles and secondary e± pairs; these pairs are produced by the collisional interactions of the accelerated protons with the cold jet protons and the stellar wind ions. In this model, the non-thermal photons are produced by πο decay emission, synchrotron and inverse Compton scattering processes from the primary electrons and secondary pairs, and relativistic bremsstrahlung emission from the secondary leptonic pairs. Based on this model framework, we show that the spectral energy distributions can be produced by the primary and secondary particles via interactions with the cold matter, and magnetic and stellar radiation fields. We also consider the attenuation of angular dependence γ-γ due to the effects of the stel- lar target photon fields. The resulting model can approximately reproduce the recent quasi-simultaneous observational data points and the non-simultaneous multi-band observations.

The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for three redshift distributions of long gamma-ray bursts in the Swift Era

We investigate redshift distributions of three long burst samples, with the first sample containing 131 long bursts with observed redshifts, the second including 220 long bursts with pseudo-redshifts calculated by the variability-luminosity relation, and the third including 1194 long bursts with pseudo-redshifls calculated by the lag-luminosity relation, respectively. In the redshift range 0-1 the Kolmogorov-Smirnov probability of the observed redshift distribution and that of the variability-luminosity relation is large. In the redshift ranges 1-2, 2-3, 3-6.3 and 0-37, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov probabilities of the redshift distribution from lag-luminosity relation and the observed redshift distribution are also large. For the GRBs, which appear both in the two pseudo-redshift burst samples, the KS probability of the pseudo-redshift distribution from the lag-luminosity relation and the observed reshift distribution is 0.447, which is very large. Based on these results, some conclusions are drawn： i） the V-Liso relation might be more believable than the τ-Liso relation in low redshift ranges and the τ-Liso relation might be more real than the V-Liso relation in high redshift ranges; ii） if we do not consider the redshift ranges, the τ-Liso relation might be more physical and intrinsical than the V-Liso relation.

Revisiting gamma-ray burst afterglows with time-dependent parameters

The relativistic external shock model of gamma-ray burst （GRB） afterglows has been estab- lished with five free parameters, i.e., the total kinetic energy E, the equipartition parameters for electrons ee and for the magnetic field eB, the number density of the environment n and the index of the power- law distribution of shocked electrons p. A lot of modified models have been constructed to consider the variety of GRB afterglows, such as： the wind medium environment by letting n change with radius, the energy injection model by letting kinetic energy change with time and so on. In this paper, by as- suming all four parameters （except p） change with time, we obtain a set of formulas for the dynamics and radiation, which can be used as a reference for modeling GRB afterglows. Some interesting results are obtained. For example, in some spectral segments, the radiated flux density does not depend on the number density or the profile of the environment. As an application, through modeling the afterglow of GRB 060607A, we find that it can be interpreted in the framework of the time dependent parameter model within a reasonable range.

Statistical study of EUV and X-ray transient brightenings

Using the visual inspection and base difference method and data from the X-ray Telescope （XRT） onboard Hinode and TRACE with improved spatial and temporal resolution, we selected 48 X-ray transient brightenings （XTBs） and 237 EUV transient brightenings （ETBs） to study the connection between these two types of transient brightenings （TBs）. These ETBs and XTBs have smaller areas （8.42 Mm^2 and 36.3 Mm^2, respectively, on average） and shorter durations （9.0 min and 6.9 min, respectively, on average） than previous studies. These XTBs show three types of morphological structure： point-like, single-loop and multiple-loop. We find only 20% of the ETBs have corresponding XTBs while the other 80% have no X-ray signatures at all. This is presumably due to the small amount of released energy, which is not enough to heat the plasma to coronal temperatures which produce X-ray emission rather than being due to the limitation of spatial resolution and temperature sensitivity of the X-ray instrument. These small ETBs may significantly contribute to the coronal heating.

Very Early Optical Afterglows for Geometric Models of X-ray Flashes and X-ray Rich GRBs

If X-ray flashes （XRFs） and X-ray rich Gamma-ray Bursts （XRRGs） have the same origin as the Gamma-ray bursts （GRBs） but are viewed off-center from structured jets, their early afterglows may differ from those of GRBs, and when the ultra-relativistic outflow inter- acts with the surrounding medium, there are two shocks formed, a forward shock （FS）, and a reverse shock （RS）. We calculate numerically the early afterglow powered by uniform jets, Gaussian jets and power-law jets in the forward-reverse shock scenario. A set of differential equations govern the dynamical evolution. The synchrotron self-Compton effect has been taken into account in the calculation. In the uniform jets, the very early afterglows of XRRGs and XRFs are significantly lower than the GRBs and the observed peak times of RS emission are later in the interstellar medium environment. The RS components in XRRGs and XRFs are difficult to detect, but in the stellar wind environment, the reduction of the very early flux and the delay of the RS peak time are not so remarkable. In nonuniform jets （Gaussian and power-law jets）, where there are emission materials on the line of sight, the very early light curve resembles equivalent isotropic ejecta in general although the RS flux decay index shows notable deviations if the RS is relativistic （in stellar wind）.

On the power-law distributions of X-ray fluxes from solar flares observed with GOES

The power-law frequency distributions of the peak flux of solar flare X-ray emission have been studied extensively and attributed to a system having self-organized criticality （SOC）. In this paper, we first show that, so long as the shape of the normalized light curve is not correlated with the peak flux, the flux histogram of solar flares also follows a power-law distribution with the same spectral index as the power- law frequency distribution of the peak flux, which may partially explain why power-law distributions are ubiquitous in the Universe. We then show that the spectral indexes of the histograms of soft X-ray fluxes observed by GOES satellites in two different energy channels are different： the higher energy channel has a harder distribution than the lower energy channel, which challenges the universal power-law distribution predicted by SOC models and implies a very soft distribution of thermal energy content of plasmas probed by the GOES satellites. The temperature （T） distribution, on the other hand, approaches a power-law dis- tribution with an index of 2 for high values of T. Hence the application of SOC models to the statistical properties of solar flares needs to be revisited.

BL Lacertae objects and the extragalactic γ-ray background

A tight correlation between γ-ray and radio emission is found for a sample of BL Lacertae （BL Lac） objects detected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope （Fermi） and the Energetic Gamma-Ray Experiment Telescope （EGRET）. The γ-ray emission of BL Lac objects exhibits strong variability, and the detection rate of γ-ray BL Lac objects is low, which may be related to the γ-ray duty cycle of BL Lac objects. We estimate the γ-ray duty cycle, δγ ≌ 0.11, for BL Lac objects detected by EGRET and Fermi. Using the empirical relation of γ-ray emission with radio emission and the estimated γ-ray duty cycle δγ, we derive the γ-ray luminosity function （LF） of BL Lac objects from their radio LE Our derived γ-ray LF of BL Lac objects can almost reproduce that calculated with the recently released Fermi bright active galactic nuclei （AGN） sample. Comparison of the derived LF of the γ-ray BL Lac objects in this work with that derived by Abdo et al. （2009a） requires the γ-ray duty cycle of BL Lac objects to be almost luminosity-independent. We find that - 45% of the extragalactic diffuse γ-ray background （EGRB） is contributed by BL Lac objects. Combining the estimate of the quasar contribution to the EGRB in the previous work, we find that 77% of the EGRB is contributed by BL Lac objects and radio quasars.

The connection between radio and γ-ray emission in Fermi/LAT blazars

We collect the second Large Area Telescope AGN catalog （2LAC） and Monitor of Jets in AGN with VLBA Equipment （MOJAVE） quasi-simultaneous data to investigate the radio-γ connection of blazars. The cross sample contains 166 sources. The statistical analysis based on this sample confirms positive correlations between these two bands, but the correlations become weaker as the γ-ray energy increases. The statistical results between various parameters show negative correla- tions of γ-ray photon spectral index with γ-ray loudness for both Flat Spectrum Radio Quasars （FSRQs） and BL Lacertae objects, positive correlations of γ-ray variability index with the γ-ray loudness for FSRQs, a negative correlation of the γ-ray variabil- ity index with the γ-ray photon spectral index for FSRQs, and negative correlations of γ-ray photon spectral index with γ-ray luminosity for FSRQs. These results suggest that the γ-ray variability may be due to changes inside the γ-ray emission region like the injected power, rather than changes in the photon density of the external radiation fields, and the variability amplitude tends to be larger as the γ-rays are closer to the high energy peak of the spectral energy distribution （SED）. No correlation of variabil- ity index found for BL Lacertae objects implies that variability behavior may differ below and above the peak energy.

Shallow Decay of X-ray Afterglows in Short GRBs:Energy Injection from a Millisecond Magnetar?

With the successful launch of Swift satellite, more and more data of early X-ray afterglows from short gamma-ray bursts have been collected. Some interesting features such as unusual afterglow light curves and unexpected X-ray flares are revealed. Especially, in some cases, there is a flat segment in the X-ray afterglow light curve. Here we present a simplified model in which we believe that the flattening part is due to energy injection from the central engine. We assume that this energy injection arises from the magnetic dipole radiation of a millisecond pulsar formed after the merger of two neutron stars. We check this model with the short GRB 060313. Our numerical results suggest that energy injection from a millisecond magnetar could make part of the X-ray afterglow light curve flat.

Energetic Gamma Radiation from Blazar and Its Effect on Intergalactic Medium

Blazars are subclass of AGN （active galactic nuclei） with relativistic jet that is pointing in the general direction of the earth. The energy flux in the jet is about （10^44-10^47） erg/s. The γ-rays in the energy range 10 GeV-10 TeV emanating from blazar are examined and their effect on the IGM （intergalactic medium） is studied. The γ-ray emission is considered as due to inverse Compton scattering of relativistic electrons. There appears to be a gamma ray flux from blazar above 10 GeV having a line intensity of 1.5 × 10^-4 cm^-2 s^-1 sr^-1. The IGM is measured to large distances and it is found to be clumpy. It is found that at higher redshifl the density of IGM increases. The cosmological density parameter measured is found to lie within the suggested limit of 0.03 at redshift z = 3 for background intensity of radiation 10^-24 W·m^-2·Hz^-1·sr^-1. The iso-ΩIGM curve shows a kink in its profile which might be significant at the particular value of z equal to 2. Some more detailed studies are required for understanding the distribution of intergalactic medium at the unstable point at z = 2 as shown in inverse Compton radiation.

Solar flares with similar soft but different hard X-ray emissions： case and statistical studies

From the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager （RHESS1） catalog we select events which have approximately the same GOES class （high C - low M or 500-1200 counts s-1 within the RHESSI 6-12 keV energy band）, but with different maximal energies of detected hard X-rays. The selected events are subdivided into two groups： （1） flares with X-ray emissions observed by RHESSI up to only 50 keV and （2） flares with hard X-ray emission observed also above 50 keV. The main task is to understand observational peculiarities of these two flare groups. We use RHESSIX-ray data to obtain spectral and spa- tial information in order to find differences between selected groups. Spectra and images are analyzed in detail for six events （case study）. For a larger number of samples （85 and 28 flares in the low-energy and high-energy groups respectively） we only make some generalizations. In spectral analysis we use the thick- target model for hard X-ray emission and one temperature assumption for thermal soft X-ray emission. RHESSI X-ray images are used for determination of flare region sizes. Although thermal and spatial prop- erties of these two groups of flares are not easily distinguishable, power law indices of hard X-rays show significant differences. Events from the high-energy group generally have a harder spectrum. Therefore, the efficiency of chromospheric evaporation is not sensitive to the hardness of nonthermal electron spectra but rather depends on the total energy flux of nonthermal electrons.

X-ray afterglow of GRB 050712: multiple energy injections into the external shock

As indicated by observed X-ray flares, a great amount of energy can be in- termittently released from the postburst central engine of gamma-ray bursts （GRBs）. As a natural consequence, the GRB＇s external shock could be repeatedly energized. With such a multiple energy injection model, we explore the unique X-ray afterglow light curve of GRB 050712, which exhibits four shallow decay plateaus. Together with three early X-ray flares, the celatral engine of GRB 050712 is believed to have released energy at least seven times after the burst. Furthermore, we find that the ener- gies released during the four plateaus are all on the same order of magnitude, but the luminosity significantly decreased with time. These results may provide some inter- esting implications for the GRB central engine.

X-ray and optical plateaus following the main bursts in GRBs and SNe Ⅱ-P: a hint about similar late injection behaviors?

We analyze the emission plateaus in the X-ray afterglow light curves of gamma-ray bursts （GRBs） and those in the optical light curves of type Ⅱ plateau su- pernovae （SNe Ⅱ-P） in order to study whether they have similar late energy injection behaviors. We show that correlations of bolometric energies （or luminosities） between the prompt explosions and the plateaus for the two phenomena are similar. The energy emitted by SNe II-P are at the lower end of the range of possible energies for GRBs. The bolometric energies （or luminosities） in the prompt phase Eexpl （or Lexpl） and in the plateau phase E_plateau （or L_plateau） share relations of E_expl ∝E _0.73±0.14_plateau and L_expl ∝ L^-0.70_plateau. These results may indicate a similar late energy injection behavior that produces the observed plateaus in these two phenomena.

Pulsed γ-ray properties of Crab pulsar in a retarded dipole with a current-induced magnetic field

Motivated by the Fermi observations of some γ-ray pulsars in which the phases of radio and γ-ray peaks are almost the same, we investigate the outer gap model in a retarded dipole with a current-induced magnetic field and apply it to explain pulsed γ-ray properties of the Crab pulsar. Our results show that the observed γ-ray energy-dependent light curves, which almost align with the radio light curve and phase averaged spectrum for the Crab pulsar, are reproduced well.

X-ray Emission Lines in GRB Afterglows: Evidence for a Two-component Jet Model

X-ray emission lines have been observed in X-ray afterglows of several T-ray bursts （GRBs）. It is a major breakthrough for understanding the nature of the progenitors. It has been proposed that the X-ray emission lines can be well explained by the Geometry-Dominated models, but in these models the illuminat- ing angle is much larger than that of the collimated jet of the GRB. For GRB 011211, we have obtained an illuminating angle of about 0 - 45°, while the angle of the GRB jet is only 3.6°. So we propose that the outflow of GRBs with emission lines should have two distinct components： a wide component that illuminates the reprocessing material and produces the emission lines and a narrow one that produces the GRB. Observations show the energy for producing the emission lines is higher than that of the GRB. In this case, when the wide component dominates the afterglows, a bump should appear in the GRB afterglow. For GRB 011211, the bump should occur within 0.05 days of the GRB, which is obviously too early for the observation to catch it. Alongside the X-ray emission lines there should also be a bright emission component between the UV and the soft X-rays. These features can be tested by the Swift satellite in the near future.