The effectiveness of eyespots and masquerade in protecting artificial prey across ontogenetic and seasonal shifts

When constraints on antipredator coloration shift over the course of development,it can be advantageous for animals to adopt different color strategies for each life stage.Many caterpillars in the genus Papilio exhibit unique ontogenetic color sequences:for example,early instars that masquerade as bird feces,with later instars possessing eyespots.I hypothesize that larvae abandon feces masquerade in favor of eyespots due to ontogenetic changes in signaler size.This ontogenetic pattern also occurs within broader seasonal shifts in background color and predator activity.I conducted predation experiments with artificial prey to determine how potential signaling constraints(specifically size and season)shape predation risk,and consequently the expression of ontogenetic color change in Papilio larvae.Seasonally,both predation and background greenness declined significantly from July to September,though there was little evidence that these patterns impacted the effectiveness of either color strategy.Caterpillar size and color strongly affected the attack rate of avian predators:attacks increased with prey size regardless of color,and eyespotted prey were attacked more than masquerading prey overall.These results may reflect a key size-mediated tradeoff between conspicuousness and intimidation in eyespotted prey,and raise questions about how interwoven aspects of behavior and signal environment might maintain the prevalence of large,eyespotted larvae in nature.

What a few hairs can tell us about the resource use of giant armadillos

Understanding of resource requirements of vulnerable species is key for conservation planning.Here,we used sta-ble carbon(δ13C)and nitrogen isotopes(δ15N)of hair from giant armadillos(Priodontes maximus)to understand individual resource use.We collected hair from 19 giant armadillos analyzing 34 samples from the Brazilian Pan-tanal and compared the resource use between sexes and age classes.We also assessed the relationship of isotopic values with individuals’body mass and the habitat type used.We observed a wide variation in resource use by giant armadillos,showing that individuals consume prey that feeds on distinct resources and occupies different habitat types,indicating that there is individual variation in foraging behavior.Most giant armadillos presented a mixed diet(C3/C4 resources,forests/open areas),but a quarter of individuals had strictly C4 diets(open areas).Males are more prone to forage on C4 resources,presenting an isotopic niche 2.6-times larger than that of females.Subadults presented diets more associated with habitats with high arboreal cover(C3 resources,forests),while adults foraged more in open areas(C4 resources).This result is mirrored by the positive relationship betweenδ13C values and body mass,suggesting that larger giant armadillos tend to feed more in open areas.We observed thatδ13C values decreased as individuals increased the use of habitats with high arboreal cover.We stress the importance of con-serving the natural mosaic in the Pantanal landscape for the species persistence,given that giant armadillos require all habitat types to fulfill their dietary,spatial,and developmental needs.