High mountain ecosystems are a challenge for the survival of animal and plant species, which have to evolve specific adaptations to cope with the prevailing extreme conditions. The strategies to survive may reach from...High mountain ecosystems are a challenge for the survival of animal and plant species, which have to evolve specific adaptations to cope with the prevailing extreme conditions. The strategies to survive may reach from opportunistic to highly adapted traits. One species successfully surviving under these conditions is the here studied butterfly Erebia nivalis. In a mark-release-recapture study performed in the Hohe Tauern National Park （Austria） from 22 July to 26 August 2013, we marked 1386 individuals and recaptured 342 of these. For each capture event, we recorded the exact point of capture and various other traits （wing conditions, behavior, nectar sources）. The population showed a partial protandrous demography with the minority of males emerging prior to the females, but the majority being synchronized with them. Males and females differed significantly in their behavior with males being more flight active and females nectaring and resting more. Both sexes showed preferences for the same plant species as nectar sources, but this specialization apparently is the result of a rapid individual adaptation to the locally available flowers. Estimates of the realized dispersal distances predicted a comparatively high amount of long-distance flights, especially for females. Therefore, the adaptation of Erebia nivalis to the unpredictable high mountain conditions might be a mixture of opportunism and specialized traits.展开更多
Uncertainty is a main source of opportunistic behaviors in research and development cooperations,which challenges strategic decisions ranging from investments to operations.To avoid opportunism arising in cooperations...Uncertainty is a main source of opportunistic behaviors in research and development cooperations,which challenges strategic decisions ranging from investments to operations.To avoid opportunism arising in cooperations,commitments(either formal contracts or informal communications)are generally made in advance by members of an alliance.However,how does a commitment encourage R&D investments and ultimately enhance the total performance,without loss of flexibility in ex post operations?This study attempts to answer this by investigating a bounded commitment in the context of vertical collaborations in a supply chain.In this exploratory study,a 3-stage game model is used(by backward induction)to examine a two-echelon supply chain under a bounded commitment in NPD.Our analysis shows that upstream R&D investment is stimulated more and that both members are better off under the bounded commitment.At the same time,when the relative bargaining power between the supplier and the manufacturer falls into an appropriate area,it is possible to reach a bounded commitment,and the manufacturer is more sensitive to this relationship.Finally,the bounded commitment restrains opportunistic behaviors,but there is no strong sign that an increase in the ratio of the order outside the chain to the inside one can make firms better.展开更多
文摘High mountain ecosystems are a challenge for the survival of animal and plant species, which have to evolve specific adaptations to cope with the prevailing extreme conditions. The strategies to survive may reach from opportunistic to highly adapted traits. One species successfully surviving under these conditions is the here studied butterfly Erebia nivalis. In a mark-release-recapture study performed in the Hohe Tauern National Park （Austria） from 22 July to 26 August 2013, we marked 1386 individuals and recaptured 342 of these. For each capture event, we recorded the exact point of capture and various other traits （wing conditions, behavior, nectar sources）. The population showed a partial protandrous demography with the minority of males emerging prior to the females, but the majority being synchronized with them. Males and females differed significantly in their behavior with males being more flight active and females nectaring and resting more. Both sexes showed preferences for the same plant species as nectar sources, but this specialization apparently is the result of a rapid individual adaptation to the locally available flowers. Estimates of the realized dispersal distances predicted a comparatively high amount of long-distance flights, especially for females. Therefore, the adaptation of Erebia nivalis to the unpredictable high mountain conditions might be a mixture of opportunism and specialized traits.
基金the National Natural Science Foundation of China(71871016,71671046,71729001)。
文摘Uncertainty is a main source of opportunistic behaviors in research and development cooperations,which challenges strategic decisions ranging from investments to operations.To avoid opportunism arising in cooperations,commitments(either formal contracts or informal communications)are generally made in advance by members of an alliance.However,how does a commitment encourage R&D investments and ultimately enhance the total performance,without loss of flexibility in ex post operations?This study attempts to answer this by investigating a bounded commitment in the context of vertical collaborations in a supply chain.In this exploratory study,a 3-stage game model is used(by backward induction)to examine a two-echelon supply chain under a bounded commitment in NPD.Our analysis shows that upstream R&D investment is stimulated more and that both members are better off under the bounded commitment.At the same time,when the relative bargaining power between the supplier and the manufacturer falls into an appropriate area,it is possible to reach a bounded commitment,and the manufacturer is more sensitive to this relationship.Finally,the bounded commitment restrains opportunistic behaviors,but there is no strong sign that an increase in the ratio of the order outside the chain to the inside one can make firms better.
