Technological Impact on the Quality of Palm Oil from Burundi: Elaeis guineensis, Variety of Dura and Tenera

The objective of this study is to determine the factors responsible for the acidification of Burundi palm oils. The investigation of the duration of fermentation of palm fruits performed among artisanal producers found that more than 89% of producers from commune of Rumonge ferment for more than 5 days while more than 61% of those from commune of Mutimbuzi ferment for 4 days. The determination of acid value using the method of ISO 660:2009 showed that Dura and Tenera varieties fermented for 4 days had respectively 5.9 ± 2.3 and 5.8 ± 1.8 mg of KOH/g of oil for clustered fruits, 7.03 ± 3.4 and 7.02 ± 3.2 mg of KOH/g for destemmed fruits. After 8 days, the acid values of Dura and Tenera varieties obtained were respectively 10.9 ± 4.7 and 12.5 ± 5.4 mg KOH/g for clustered fruits, 12.5 ± 5.4 and 12.5 ± 4.1 mg KOH/g for destemmed fruits. No significant difference was recorded between varieties. On the other hand, a highly significant difference at p < 0.05 was obtained between fruits fermented in the open air (e.g. around the foot of the oil palm, FFOA), in a shed when the fruits were not covered (SFNC) and in a shed when the fruits were covered by branches or straw (SFC). At 8 days of fermentation, the acid values of FFOA, SFNC and SFC were 9.1 ± 0.7 < 12.6 ± 0.8 < 17.7 ± 1.4 for destemmed fruit and 9.1 ± 0.7 < 13.2 ± 1.3 < 13.2 ± 3.2 for clustered fruit, respectively. In light of these results, the acidity of Rumonge palm oil is probably due to the long fermentation time and the technique of covering the fruits during fermentation. These results will allow producers to extract good quality oil and consequently improve the health of consumers.

Optimization of Wax Esters Production from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate and Oleyl Alcohol over Amberlyst 15

Wax esters were derived from long chain fatty acids and long chain alcohols with chain length of 12 carbons or more. These compounds have many potential applications in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and food industries. The present work focuses on the synthesis of wax esters using palm fatty acid distillate and oleyl alcohol catalyzed by Amberlyst 15. Response surface methodology （RSM） based on a five-level, three-variable central composite design （CCD） was used to evaluate the interactive effects of synthesis, of amount of Amberlyst 15 catalyst （21.6-38.4% w/w）, reaction time （18-102 min） and molar ratio （palm fatty acid distillate to oleyl alcohol, 1：1.16-1：2.84） on the percentage conversion of palm fatty acid distillate. The optimum conditions derived via RSM were： amount of catalyst 33% w/w, reaction time 95 minute and palm fatty acid to oleyl alcohol molar ratio 1：2.7. The actual experimental conversion was 81.52% under optimum condition, which compared well to the maximum predicted value of 80.50%. Analysis of the yield showed that at optimum condition, 80.54% wax esters were produced.

Influences of operating conditions on biocatalytic activity and reusability of Novozym 435 for esterification of free fatty acids with short-chain alcohols:A case study of palm fatty acid distillate

In the present study, the effects of operating conditions on biocatalytic activity and stability of Novozym 435 for repeated-batch biodiesel production from free fatty acid （FFA） were investigated. Thermal deactivation caused by increased operating temperature from 45 to 50 ℃ could seriously affect the reusability of Novozym 435. The deactivation of Novozym 435 during the esterification of oleic acid with ethanol tended to be stronger than that in the system with methanol. Under the optimal conditions, considering both biocatalytic activity and stability of the enzyme, Novozym 435 could be reused for 13 cycles for biodiesel productions from oleic acid and absolute alcohols （methanol and ethanol） with FFA conversions of at least 90%. The presence of 4%-5% water in ethanol significantly affected the reusability of Novozym 435. Changes in the surface morphology of Novozym 435 during the esterification with various conditions were observed. It was revealed that the reduction in catalytic activity was related to the swelling degree of the catalyst surface, Additionally, biodiesel production from low cost renewable feedstocks, such as palm fatty acid distillate （PFAD） and 95% ethanol was examined, The esterification of PFAD with 95% ethanol catalyzed by Novozym 435 in 10-repeated batch operation showed the similar results in FFA conversion as compared to those using oleic acid. Novozym 435 remained active and could maintain 97.6% of its initial conversion after being used for 10 hatches.

Effects of palm fat powder and coated folic acid on growth performance, ruminal fermentation, nutrient digestibility and hepatic fat accumulation of Holstein dairy bulls

This study evaluated the effects of palm fat powder(PFP) and coated folic acid(CFA) on growth performance, ruminal fermentation, nutrient digestibility, microbial enzyme activity, microflora, hepatic lipid content and gene expression in dairy bulls. Forty-eight Chinese Holstein bulls((362±12.4) days of age and(483±27.1) kg of body weight(BW)) were assigned to four groups in a completely randomized design with a 2×2 factorial arrangements. Supplemental PFP(0 or 30 g PFP kg-1 dietary dry matter(DM)) and CFA(0 or 120 mg FA d-1 as CFA) were mixed into the top one-third of a total mixed ration. The study included a 20-day adaptation period and followed by a 90-day collection period. The lower(P<0.01) feed conversion ratio with PFP or CFA addition resulted from the constant DM intake and the higher(P<0.05) average daily gain. The higher(P<0.05) ruminal p H, ether extract digestibility, microbial α-amylase activity, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens copy, and expression of peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor α(PPARα) and carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1(CPT1), and lower ruminal total volatile fatty acids(VFA) concentration, acetate to propionate ratio, neutral detergent fibre(NDF) digestibility, copies of total protozoa and Ruminococcus flavefaciens, and expression of sterol regulatory element binding protein-1(SREBP1) and acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase α(ACACA) were observed for PFP addition. Supplementation with CFA increased(P<0.05) ruminal total VFA concentration, acetate to propionate ratio, digestibility of DM, organic matter, crude protein and NDF, activity of cellobiase, pectinase and α-amylase, copies of selected microbial except for total protozoa, as well as expression of PPARα, but decreased(P<0.05) ruminal p H, and expression of SREBP1 and ACACA. The PFP×CFA interaction(P<0.05) was observed for ammonia N, hepatic TG content, and m RNA expression of CPT1 and FAS. There had no significant difference in hepatic TG content when CFA was supplemented in the diet without PFP addition, the lower(P=0.001) hepatic TG content was observed when CFA was supplemented in the diet with PFP addition. The higher(P<0.05) m RNA expression of CPT1, and the lower(P<0.05) m RNA expression of FAS and ammonia N concentration were observed when CFA was supplemented in diet either without or with PFP addition. The results indicated that supplementation of CFA in PFP diet was more effective on increasing hepatic CPT1 expression, and decreasing ammonia N, hepatic TG content and FAS expression than in diet without PFP. Supplementation with PFP or CFA improved growth performance of dairy bulls by promoting nutrient utilization, microbial enzyme activity, microflora, and hepatic gene expression.

Influence of pre-treatment in citric acid solution on physical and mechanical properties of thermally compressed oil palm board

Oil palm trunk is an excellent raw material for thermally compressed wood board.However,improvements to dimensional stability during water absorption and reduced thickness swelling has been tied to losses in other mechanical properties,especially as the compression temperature is increased.Toward solving this trade-off,we analyzed the effects of a 48 h pre-soak in citric acid solutions(0,5,15,25,or 35%w/v in distilled water)on the physical and mechanical properties of oil palm board compressed at 140℃.The reference benchmark case was compressed at 200℃without pretreatment.The oil palm board raw materials were obtained from outer,middle and inner parts of trunk.The results showed that the oven-dry density of compressed oil palm board made from different parts of trunk increased with thermal compression(maximum pressure 12.26 MPa for 8 min).The citric acid pretreatment improved water absorption and thickness swelling properties of oil palm board thermally compressed at 140℃,consistent with the citric acid concentration.The carboxyl groups in citric acid cross-link with the hydroxyl groups in the wood.However,no significant difference was found between the benchmark(200℃)and pretreatments with 5 or 15%citric acid.The citric acid altered the wood chemistry during hot compressing at 140℃.Static bending strength,modulus of rupture(MOR),and modulus of elasticity(MOE)slightly decreased with the citric acid pretreatment,matching the effects of high temperature compression at 200℃.

Optimizing Vitamin E Purification from Unsaponiable Matter of Palm Fatty Acids Distillate by Low Temperature Solvent Crystallization

Palm fatty acid distillate （PFAD）, a by-product of deodorization in palm oil refining, contains about 0.7%-1% vitamin E. The advantage of PFAD over other vitamin E sources is higher amount of tocotrienols than that of tocopherols. Vitamin E purification of unsaponiable matter of PFAD was aimed to remove other impurities to obtain high vitamin E concentration, mainly tocotrienols. This research used low temperature solvent crystallization to purify vitamin E. To optimize response of vitamin concentration, a response surface method was applied with three factors, i.e., the ratio between solvent and unsaponifiable matter （A）, crystallization temperature （B）, and crystallization time （C）. The relation of three factors was quadratic with equation Y = -128.54361 ＋ 41.33904A - 0.87995B ＋ 1.58941C ＋ 0.00290AB - 0.044324AC ＋ 0.00120BC - 3.33113A2 - 0.039535B2 - 0.02710C2. The optimum crystallization condition was obtained at ratio of solventto unsaponifiable matter of 6.04：1, crystallization temperature of-10.54 ℃, and crystallization time of 24.16 hours. Vitamin E enriched fraction from optimum crystallization conditions contained vitamin E of 20.13% （w/w）.

Production of biodiesel from palm fatty acid distillate using sulfonated-glucose solid acid catalyst:Characterization and optimization

A palm fatty acid distillate （PFAD） has been used for biodiesel production. An efficient sulfonated-glucose acid catalyst （SGAC） was prepared by sulfonation to catalyze the esterification reaction. The effect of three variables i.e. methanol-to-PFAD molar ratio, catalyst amount and reaction time, on the yield of PFAD esters was studied by the response surface methodology （RSM）. The optimum reaction conditions were： 12.2：1 methanol-to- PFAD molar ratio, 2.9% catalyst concentration and 134 rain of time as predicted by the RSM. The reaction under the optimum conditions resulted in 94.5% of the free fatty acid （FFA） conversion with 92.4% of the FAME yield. The properties of the PFAD esters were determined according to biodiesel standards.

Effects of Mixing Canola and Palm Oils with Sunflower Oil on the Formation of Trans Fatty Acids during Frying

GLC analysis was conducted to indicate the formation of trans- C18 fatty acids of sunflower, canola and palm oils during frying. Blends of sunflower oil and palm oil or canola oil were obtained by mixing sunflower oil with palm or canola oils at the volume ratios of 60: 40, 40: 60 and 20: 80 (v/v), then heated at 180?C ± 5?C for 5, 10, 15 and 20 h in the atmospheric oxygen. GLC results demonstrate that the formation of trans C18-fatty acids was generally dependent upon the frying time and oil mixing ratios. Furthermore, mixing sunflower oil with oils rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (palm or canola oils) lowered the formation of trans-C18 fatty acids during frying.

Optimization of Nutrients in Fermentative Lactic Acid Production Using Oil Palm Trunk Juice as Substrate

Complex nutrients e.g. carbon, nitrogen, peptides, vitamin and salts significantly play important roles in lactic acid production efficiency depending on types of microorganism and sources of raw material. In this study oil palm trunk juice and Lactobacillus rhamnosus TISTR 108 (ATTC 10863) were utilized for lactic acid production. Additional nutrients including peptone, yeast extract and mixed salts were tested. Response surface methodology involving Box Behkhen Design (BBD) was applied to examine the optimal condition. Prediction of optimization was performed using full quadratic regression equation. The predicted maximum lactic acid concentration was obtained at 64.05 g·l-1 within a period of 48 h under an optimal condition of 10 g·l-1 peptone with mixed salts containing 0.4 g·l-1 MgSO4·7H2O, 0.1 g·l-1 MnSO4·4H2O, 3 g·l-1 K2HPO4, 3 g·l-1 KH2PO4 and 3 g·l-1 CH3COONa·3H2O in 250 ml shake flask using CaCO3 as a titrant. Verification of optimization condition was performed in 2 l fermenter using Ca(OH)2 as neutralizing agent. Increase in lactic acid fermentation was achieved at 92.81 g·l-1 at 48 h cultivation. The lactic acid yield and volumetric productivity were 0.94 g·g-1 and 1.91 g l-1·h-1, respectively. This suggests that OPT juice is potentially used as carbon and nutrient sources for lactic acid production.

Isolation, Characterisation and Evaluation of Antiulcerogenic Potentials of Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Fermented Milk and Palm Wine against Ethanol-Induced Gastric Ulcer in Mice

Background: Gastric ulcer is one of the most common gastrointestinal diseases with a worldwide prevalence of about 40% in the developed countries and 80% in Africa. Acid inhibitors, anticholinergics, histamine H2-antagonists and antibiotics are commonly used to treat gastric ulcer. However, the accumulating evidence for resistance to antibiotics and the side effects of antibiotics and acid inhibitors, anticholinergics and histamine H2-antagonists. Therefore, there is an urgent need for approaches to treat and prevent gastric ulcer. One alternative strategy is the use of probiotic lactic acid bacteria. Aim of the study: This study aimed to isolate and characterised probiotic lactic acid bacteria from palm wine and fermented milk, and to evaluate their antiulcerogenic potentials on ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in mice. Methods: Probiotic lactic acid bacteria were isolated from the fermented milk and palm wine using pour plate technique on MRS agar and identified using the 16S r RNA gene sequencing. For functional properties and selection, acid and bile salt tolerance were evaluated based on viable colony count on MRS agar. Two probiotic lactic acid bacteria were selected for in vivo studies. Fifty-four healthy young adult Balb/c mice were randomly divided into 9 groups of 6 mice each. Gastric ulcer was induced in mice using one oral dose of absolute ethanol (10 mL/kg body weight). The probiotic lactic acid bacteria (F1 and F2) at different doses (MF3 = 9 × 108 CFU/mL, MF6 = 1.8 × 109 CFU/mL and MF9 = 2.7 × 109 CFU/mL) and omeprazole (20 mg/kg) (a reference drug) were orally administrated daily for 14 days before ulcer induction. These mice were sacrificed 1hour after induction and the stomach contents were collected for volume and pH determination. The stomachs were subjected to macroscopic, biochemical and histopathological analysis. Results: Among the isolates obtained, two were considered to have the best acid and bile tolerance capacity (viable count > 7.5 logCFU/ml) and were identified as Limosilactobacillus fermentum strain BB101 (F1) and Lactobacillus casei strain 02 (F2). Oral administration of probiotics Lactic acid bacteria F1 and F2 significantly attenuated gastric ulcer as revealed by significant reduction (P Conclusion: The results of this study revealed that palm wine and fermented milk are sources of potential probiotic lactic acid bacteria, that is lactobacillus fermentum strain BB101 and Lactobacillus casei 02 with excellent bile and acid tolerance capacity. Also, these probiotic lactic acid bacteria exhibit gastroprotective effect on ethanol-induced gastric ulcer via antioxidant, enhance gastric ulcer healing, antacids, and anti-secretary effects.

Preparation and Characterization of Activated Carbons from Asparagus Palm (Laccosperma robustum) Bark by Chemical Activation with H3PO4 and KOH

The present work deals with the preparation and characterization of activated carbons from the bark of the asparagus palm (Laccosperma robustum) by chemical activation with phosphoric acid and potassium hydroxide. The process was optimized on the basis of the analysis of the iodine number, methylene blue number and activated carbons yield as a function of the preparation parameters (concentration of the activating agents and the pyrolysis temperature). It emerges that the pyrolysis temperature and the concentration of activating agents influence the activated carbons preparation process. Their values were 500°C and 20% respectively for activated carbon with H3PO4 (ACP) and 700°C and 1.5% for activated carbon with KOH (ACK). The iodine numbers obtained were 850.26 mg/g for ACP and 865.49 mg/g for ACK. The methylene blue numbers obtained were 149.35 mg/g for ACP and 149.25 mg/g for ACK. The activated carbons yields obtained were 25% for ACP and 5.9% for ACK. The activated carbons prepared under optimal conditions have shown the pH of zero-point charge (pHzpc) of 4.4 and 7.0 for ACP for ACK respectively. The determination of the surface functions revealed that ACP had a strong acidic character while ACK had neutral character. The Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy also showed the presence of different functional groups on the surface of the precursor and activated carbons.

棕榈油和棉籽油硬脂在油条煎炸过程中的品质评价

将棕榈油和棉籽油硬脂分别进行32 h的连续深度煎炸,检测过程中的质量指标,评价其煎炸特性。结果表明,在32 h连续深度煎炸过程中,随着煎炸时间的延长,棕榈油颜色加深更明显,其极性组分含量和酸价增加更多,碘值更低,两种油的过氧化值变化均不明显,但所有指标均在国标规定范围内。两种煎炸油的饱和脂肪酸(saturated fatty acid,SFA)的含量均增加,单不饱和脂肪酸(monounsaturated fatty acid,MUFA)和多不饱和脂肪酸(polyunsatu⁃rated fatty acid,PUFA)的含量减少,棉籽油硬脂的SFA增加更多。两种煎炸油的反式脂肪酸(trans fatty acid,TFA)含量均随煎炸时间的延长而增加,其中棕榈油的TFA含量增加更多。棉籽油硬脂作为煎炸油煎炸后的食品酸价、极性组分含量、TFA含量更低,颜色透亮,煎炸寿命长,稳定性好,食用安全,更符合现代消费者的消费观。

油棕果实发育和采后脂肪酸合成转录代谢差异分析

油棕(Elaeis guineensis Jacq.)是世界上生产效率最高的产油植物,果实发育是形成产量的基础,但采收24 h后会出现酸败现象,严重影响棕榈油品质,目前对果肉发育和采后的游离脂肪酸代谢物合成差异的关键调控基因及途径尚未明确。本研究以油棕果实为实验材料,果实取自授粉后95 d(MS1)﹑125 d(MS2)、185 d(MS3)、采收后24 h(MS4)、采收后36h(MS5)5个时期。采用第二代高通量转录组学技术(RNA-Seq)和液相色谱串联质谱代谢组学技术(LC-MS/MS),对其发育和采后的果实进行转录组和代谢组测定与分析。结果表明:无籽种油棕在脂肪酸积累中后期不饱和脂肪酸显著高于饱和脂肪酸,在油棕果实发育过程中,LACS4、LACS4-X1、FATA、FATB、KASⅠ、KASⅡ、SAD1在果肉中高表达且与果肉中油酸、亚油酸、棕榈酸、棕榈油酸、硬脂酸、亚麻酸呈正相关关系,DGAT、PDAT在果肉中高表达且与上述6种脂肪酸含量呈负相关关系,说明上述酶基因的表达可能对油棕果实脂肪酸的合成和累积分别具有促进和抑制作用,推测LACS4、LACS4-X1、FATA、FATB、KASⅠ、KASⅡ、SAD1可能是不饱和脂肪酸含量较高的关键基因;在果实采后贮藏过程中,GDSL2、GDSL7、SAD2、LACS9酶基因和GDSL1、KAT分别与油酸呈极显著正、负相关关系,与棕榈酸、棕榈油酸、硬脂酸、亚油酸、亚麻酸呈负、正相关,推测在酸败过程GDSL2、GDSL7、SAD2、LACS9酶基因可能促进油酸生成,抑制棕榈酸、棕榈油酸、硬脂酸、亚油酸、亚麻酸合成,GDSL1、KAT酶基因反之,推测GDSL2、GDSL7、SAD2、LACS9可能是导致油棕采后酸败的关键基因。本研究结果旨在利用分子生物技术提升高不饱和脂肪酸含量和改变脂肪酸组成提供备选基因,为筛选高不饱和脂肪酸和耐贮藏的品种提供理论参考。

气相色谱法测定氢化棕榈油甘油酯的脂肪酸组成

目的:构建一种利用气相色谱法的氢化棕榈油甘油酯脂肪酸组成分析体系,为药用辅料氢化棕榈油甘油酯的质量标准制定提供参考依据。方法:选用DB-WAX(30 m×0.53 mm,1.0μm)强极性气相色谱柱,进样体积1μL,分流比为120:1,起始柱温70℃,维持2 min,以每分钟5℃的速率升温至230℃,维持10 min,进样口温度250℃,检测器温度为250℃。结果:本实验成功建立了一种气相色谱方法来测定氢化棕榈油甘油酯的脂肪酸组成,验证结果显示该方法具有良好的系统适用性、专属性和精密度,RSD(%)满足要求,确定了9种脂肪酸甲酯的检测限和定量限,并成功对7批样品进行脂肪酸成分考察。结论:本试验开发的气相色谱法,适用于氢化棕榈油甘油酯中脂肪酸组成的分析测定,能够为该药用辅料的质量控制和质量标准的设立提供参考依据。

酸碱改性木质活性炭对棕榈油中3-MCPD酯的吸附脱除效果

以精炼棕榈油为研究对象,研究4种碳纳米吸附剂(木质活性炭粉末、椰壳活性炭粉末、煤质活性炭粉末和多壁碳纳米管)对3-氯丙醇(3-MCPD)酯的吸附脱除效果,并对最佳吸附剂进行酸碱改性,探究改性后吸附剂添加量、吸附时间和吸附温度对棕榈油中3-MCPD酯吸附脱除效果的影响。结果表明:对3-MCPD酯的脱除效果为木质活性炭粉末>多壁碳纳米管>椰壳活性炭粉末>煤质活性炭粉末,整体脱除效果欠佳;经4 mol/L H_(3)PO_(4)改性后的木质活性炭粉末,吸附性能增强,在吸附剂添加量为5.85%、吸附时间为47 min、吸附温度为103℃的最佳吸附条件下,对棕榈油中3-MCPD酯的脱除率可达71.82%。使用H_(3)PO_(4)改性木质活性炭可作为脱除食用油中3-MCPD酯的一个有效方法。

环保型棕榈油基钻井液研究

针对油基钻井液环境友好性差、处理成本高的缺点,配制了一种以棕榈油作为基油的环保型棕榈油基钻井液体系。通过气质联用仪(GC-MS)分析可知棕榈油主要成分为十八烷酸(硬脂酸),十四烷酸(肉豆蔻酸)。采用天然材料腐植酸为原料,通过接枝十八胺进行改性合成一种与棕榈油配伍性好的降滤失剂,对合成的降滤失剂进行了结构表征、热失重分析和扫描电镜分析。优选了有机土、乳化剂等关键处理剂,形成了环保型棕榈油基钻井液体系。其配方为棕榈油+20%CaCl 2+3%有机土+3%乳化剂+3%降滤失剂+1%润湿剂+1%CaO+重晶石。通过棕榈油基钻井液的基本性能、抗污染性能和环保性能评价可知:棕榈油基钻井液体系在120℃老化前后,破乳电压值均在800 V以上,高温高压滤失量为5.4 mL,黏度与切力适中;该体系有较好的抗NaCl、岩屑污染能力。体系的生物毒性EC 50值为104000 mg/L,浸出液的BOD 5/COD Cr值为24.5%,具有生物毒性低,易降解的优点,可以满足环保要求高的地区对钻井液的要求。

类可可脂的酶法制备工艺优化及性质分析

为制备性质与天然可可脂接近的类可可脂,以LipozymeRMIM为催化剂,棕榈油中熔点分提产物和硬脂酸为原料,在无溶剂条件下进行酶法酯交换反应,并通过分子蒸馏和溶剂结晶纯化制备类可可脂。对酶法酯交换制备工艺及分子蒸馏和溶剂结晶纯化工艺进行单因素试验优化。同时以天然可可脂为对照,对制备的类可可脂进行理化性质及结晶性能分析。结果表明:酶法酯交换工艺的最优条件为底物质量比1∶1、酶添加量8%(以底物总质量计)、反应温度70℃、反应时间2h;分子蒸馏纯化工艺的最优条件为蒸馏温度210℃、进料速度2mL/min、刮板速度150r/min;以正己烷为溶剂结晶纯化工艺的最优条件为结晶温度15℃、结晶时间18h。在最优条件下制备的类可可脂各项指标与天然可可脂基本一致,且二者经调温后均表现出稳定的β结晶趋势。综上,该工艺适用于性质接近天然可可脂的类可可脂的工业化生产。

Palm oil and the heart:A review

Palm oil consumption and its effects on serum lipid levels and cardiovascular disease in humans is still a subject of debate. Advocacy groups with varying agenda fuel the controversy. This update intends to identify evidence-based evaluations of the influence of palm oil on serum lipid profile and cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, it suggests a direction for future research. The sources of information were based on a Pub Med, Google Scholar, African Journal online and Medline search using key words including: palm oil, palmitic acid, saturated fatty acids and heart disease. Published animal and human experiments on the association of palm oil and its constituents on the serum lipid profile and cardiovascular disease were also explored for relevant information. These papers are reviewed and the available evidence is discussed. Most of the information in mainstream literature is targeted at consumers and food companies with a view to discourage the consumption of palm oil. The main argument against the use of palm oil as an edible oil is the fact that it contains palmitic acid, which is a saturated fatty acid and by extrapolation should give rise to elevated total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. However, there are many scientific studies, both in animals and humans that clearly show that palm oil consumption does not give rise to elevated serum cholesterol levels and that palm oil is not atherogenic. Apart from palmitic acid, palm oil consists of oleic and linoleic acids which are monounsaturated and polyunsaturated respectively. Palm oil also consists of vitamins A and E, which are powerful antioxidants. Palm oil has been scientifically shown to protect the heart and blood vessels from plaques and ischemic injuries. Palm oil consumed as a dietary fat as a part of a healthy balanced diet does not have incremental risk for cardiovascular disease. Little or no additional benefit will be obtained by replacing it with other oils rich in mono or polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Synthesis and Characterisation of a Biolubricant from Cameroon Palm Kernel Seed Oil Using a Locally Produced Base Catalyst from Plantain Peelings

Biolubricant was synthesized from Cameroon palm kernel oil (PKO) by double transesterification, producing methyl esters in the first stage which were then transesterified with trimethylolpropane (TMP) to give the PKO biolubricant in the presence of a base catalyst obtained from plantain peelings (municipal waste). The yields from both catalysts were significantly similar (48% for the locally produced and 51% for the conventional) showing that the locally produced catalyst could be valorized. The synthesized biolubricant was characterized by measuring its physical and chemical properties. The specific gravity of 1.2, ASTM color of 1.5, cloud point of 0°C, pour point of -9°C, viscosities at 40°C of 509.80 cSt and at 100°C of 30.80 cSt, viscosity index of 120, flash point greater than 210°C and a fire point greater than 220°C were obtained. This synthesized biolubricant was found to be comparable to commercial T-46 petroleum lubricant sample produced industrially from mineral sources. We have therefore used local materials to produce a biolubricant using a cheap base catalyst produced from municipal waste.