Resurvey After 20 Years:Updating the Distribution,Population,and Potential Threats of the Chinting Alpine Toad

Considering the increased anthropogenic impacts,species with a limited range and low detectability often lack fundamental information and conservation actions,placing them at a high risk of endangerment.The Chinting alpine toad Scutiger chintingensis is a rare mountain amphibian endemic to the eastern margin of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau in China.Within its whole distribution range,only three known populations(Wolong,Emei,and Wawu)exist and no recent population status report has been documented for this species over the past two decades.From 2020 to 2023,we investigated the species distribution,and assessed the risk factors for the main populations.We recorded this species in all distribution areas,and updated a new distribution site with a lower elevation limit.The relative population density was 0.024±0.012 ind./m^(2)on Mount Emei,whereas only 0.008±0.017 ind./m^(2)on Mount Wawu.No significant difference was observed in the number of individuals between the two populations;however,the relative population density was significantly different.Sewage and waste discharge resulting from the construction of scenic areas,as well as disturbances from tourism,were the primary anthropogenic factors that influenced the survival of this species.Our results provide the updated information on the distribution and population status of the Chinting alpine toad,and suggest that unrecorded populations,as well as a wider elevation range,may exist for this species.Our findings emphasise the importance of timely updates of species distribution and population information and offer a basis for the future conservation of endangered amphibians.

Genetic identification and reiterated captures suggest that the Astyanax mexicanus El Pachón cavefish population is closed and declining

The sizes of Astyanax mexicanus blind cavefish populations of North-East Mexico are demographic parameters of great importance for investigating a variety of ecological,evolutionary,and conservation issues.However,few estimates have been obtained.For these mobile animals living in an environment difficult to explore as a whole,methods based on capture-mark-recapture are appropriate,but their feasibility and interpretation of results depend on several assumptions that must be carefully examined.Here,we provide evidence that minimally invasive genetic identification from captures at different time intervals(three days and three years)can give insights into cavefish population size dynamics as well as other important demographic parameters of interest.We also provide tools to calibrate sampling and genotyping efforts necessary to reach a given level of precision.Our results suggest that the El Pachón cave population is currently very small,of an order of magnitude of a few hundreds of individuals,and is distributed in a relatively isolated area.The probable decline in population size in the El Pachón cave since the last census in 1971 raises serious conservation issues.

An Effective Runge-Kutta Optimizer Based on Adaptive Population Size and Search Step Size

A newly proposed competent population-based optimization algorithm called RUN,which uses the principle of slope variations calculated by applying the Runge Kutta method as the key search mechanism,has gained wider interest in solving optimization problems.However,in high-dimensional problems,the search capabilities,convergence speed,and runtime of RUN deteriorate.This work aims at filling this gap by proposing an improved variant of the RUN algorithm called the Adaptive-RUN.Population size plays a vital role in both runtime efficiency and optimization effectiveness of metaheuristic algorithms.Unlike the original RUN where population size is fixed throughout the search process,Adaptive-RUN automatically adjusts population size according to two population size adaptation techniques,which are linear staircase reduction and iterative halving,during the search process to achieve a good balance between exploration and exploitation characteristics.In addition,the proposed methodology employs an adaptive search step size technique to determine a better solution in the early stages of evolution to improve the solution quality,fitness,and convergence speed of the original RUN.Adaptive-RUN performance is analyzed over 23 IEEE CEC-2017 benchmark functions for two cases,where the first one applies linear staircase reduction with adaptive search step size(LSRUN),and the second one applies iterative halving with adaptive search step size(HRUN),with the original RUN.To promote green computing,the carbon footprint metric is included in the performance evaluation in addition to runtime and fitness.Simulation results based on the Friedman andWilcoxon tests revealed that Adaptive-RUN can produce high-quality solutions with lower runtime and carbon footprint values as compared to the original RUN and three recent metaheuristics.Therefore,with its higher computation efficiency,Adaptive-RUN is a much more favorable choice as compared to RUN in time stringent applications.

Effects of effective population size on the F_2 growth and survival of bay scallop Argopecten irradians irradians (Lamarck)

In 2002, six cohorts ofbroodstock bay scallop Argopecten irradians irradians （Ne=1, 2, 10, 30, 50 and control） were randomly chosen from a population of bay scallop to produce offspring. After one year rearing, with the progeny matured, the similar experiment was done to produce the F2 generation. To determine the magnitude of Ne effects, the growth and survival rates in larvae and adult of six F2 groups were compared. Results showed that inbreeding depression existed not only in the Ne=1 group but also in the Ne=2 group. The growth and survival rates of the two groups were significantly lower than those of the other groups （Ne=10, 30, 50, control）, and there were no significant differences among the latter （P〉0.05）. At the same time, the amount of depression in the Ne=1 group was significantly higher than that of the Ne=2 group （P〈0.05）. These results indicated that the low effective population size （Ne）, which increases the possibility of inbreeding, could lead to some harmful effects on the offspring. So it is essential to maintain a high level of Ne in commercial seed production. Fta＇thermore, as the high fecundity of bay scallop might lead to increased inbreeding, selecting broodstock from different growout sites is recommended.

Patterns of change in the population and spatial distribution of oriental white storks (Ciconia boyciana) wintering in Poyang Lake

Using total counts in simultaneous annual surveys, we monitored the population size and spatial distribution of oriental white storks （Ciconia boyciana） wintering in Poyang Lake between 1998 and 2011. Results showed that Poyang Lake wetland is an important wintering ground for oriental white storks, with an annual average population number of 2 305＋326. The population sizes in 2004, 2005, 2010, and 2011 were higher than the highest-ever estimate of its global population. In 2005, we recorded 3 789 individuals, which was the maximum population number within the period of 1998-2011. The storks inhabited 52 lakes, with the greatest distance between these lakes being 180.3 km. The storks presented a clustered distribution pattern in the Poyang Lake wetland, irrespective of the number of individuals or occurrence frequencies. Shahu, Dahuchi, Banghu, and Hanchihu were most frequently used lakes and had the largest annual average numbers of storks. There was a significant positive correlation between occurrence frequency and annual average number of storks in the lakes. Most of the lakes important for storks were covered by existing nature reserves, though some lakes outside the reserves were also frequently used. About 64.9%＋ 5.5% of the storks were found in nature reserves. In addition, the storks more frequently used and clumped in significantly larger flocks in lakes within nature reserves than lakes outside.

Genetic diversity analysis of spawner and recaptured populations of Chinese shrimp(Fenneropenaeus chinensis)during stock enhancement in the Bohai Bay based on an SSR marker

Eight microsatellite markers were used to analyze genetic diversity, level of inbreeding, and effective population size of spawner and recaptured populations of Chinese shrimp（Fenneropenaeus chinensis） during stock enhancement in the Bohai Bay in 2013. A total of 254 and 238 alleles were identified in the spawner and recaptured populations, respectively, and the numbers of alleles（N_a） were 8–63 and 6–60, respectively. The numbers of effective alleles（N_e） were 2.52–21.60 and 2.67–20.72, respectively. The polymorphism information content ranged from 0.529 to 0.952. The observed heterozygosity（H_o） values（0.638–0.910 and 0.712–0.927） were lower than the expected heterozygosity（H_e） values（0.603–0.954 and 0.625–0.952）, which indicated that the two populations possessed a rich genetic diversity. In 16 tests（2 populations×8 loci）, 13 tests deviated from the HardyWeinberg equilibrium. F_（is） values were positive at seven loci and the inbreeding coefficients（F） of the two populations estimated by trio ML were 13.234% and 11.603%, suggesting that there was a relatively high degree of inbreeding. A certain level of inbreeding depression had occurred in the Chinese shrimp population. F_（st） values ranged from 0 to 0.059, with a mean of 0.028, displaying a low level of genetic differentiation in the two populations. Effective population sizes（3 060.2 and 3 842.8） were higher than the minimum number suggested for retaining the evolutionary potential to adapt to new environmental conditions. For enhancement activity in 2014,the ideal number of captured shrimp spawners should have ranged from 7 686 to 19 214 to maintain genetic diversity and effective population size. Further strategies to adjust the balance of economic cost, fishing effort and ideal number of shrimp spawners to maintain a satisfactory effective population size for ensuring the sustainability of Chinese shrimp are proposed.

African Lion Population Estimates in Tanzania’s Ruaha National Park

Tanzania is considered a country with the largest number of African lions (Panthera leo). However, the continued absence of ecological population estimates and understanding of the associated factors influencing lion distribution hinders the development of conservation planning. This is particularly true in the Ruaha-Rungwa landscape, where it was estimated that more than 10% of the global lion population currently resides. By using a call-back survey method, we aimed to provide population estimates (population size and density) of African lions in the Ruaha National Park, between wet (March 2019) and dry (October 2019) seasons. We also assessed the key factors that influenced the distribution of the observed lions towards call-back stations. Ferreira & Funston’s (2010) formula was used to calculate population size and in turn used to estimate density in the sampled area, while the Generalized Linear Model (GLMM) with zero-inflated Poisson error distribution was used to determine factors that influence the distribution of the observed lions to call-back stations. The population size we calculated for the sampled area of 3137.2 km2 revealed 286 lions (95% CI, 236 - 335) during the wet season, and 196 lions (95% CI, 192 - 200) during the dry season. The density of lions was 9.1/100 km2 during the wet season, and 6.3/100 km2 during the dry season. Distance to water source had a significant negative effect on the distribution of the observed lions to the call-back stations, while habitat had a marginal effect. Our findings show that, although lion population estimates were larger during the wet season than the dry season, the season had no effect on the distribution of the observed lions to call-back stations. We suggest that the proximity to water sources is important in study design. Further, we suggest that density and population size are useful indices in identifying conservation area priorities and lion coexistence strategies.

Role of intraspecific competition in intrinsic growth rate regulation in an Oikopleura dioica(Tunicata)population

Planktonic Oikopleura dioica respond almost instantly to opportunistic algal blooms,but it is unknown whether the population increase can change from an exponential to a logistic model to avoid a final sudden collapse.To test the hypothesis that intraspecific competition regulates the intrinsic rate of natural increase(r),density-dependent effects on growth and reproduction performance were investigated in O.dioica via laboratory incubations.Over a large food concentration range,batch maturation was observed above the per capita food supply(PFS)of 8.1µgC/ind.in 4.5 d.Somatic growth was saturated beyond this PFS value,whereas gonad length increased continuously.Below this threshold,individuals reached small body and gonad lengths,and maturation was rarely observed during the incubation period.The gonad/body volume and maturation ratios also increased with the PFS.Instead of the food concentration,the r values were regulated by competition pressure via variability in maturation duration and the proportion of mature individuals in the cohorts.When the minimum food demand was satisfied in the designated generation time,the r value tended to be regulated by the spawning proportion in the population.Otherwise,prolonged development duration and decreased r values were expected.

Population Size, Genetic Diversity and Molecular Evidence of a Recent Population Bottleneck in Hynobius chinensis, an Endangered Salamander Species

Severe population declines can reduce species to small populations, offering permissive conditions for deleterious processes. For example, following such events, species can become prone to inbreeding and genetic drift which can lead to a loss of genetic diversity and evolutionary potentials. Hynobius chinensis is a poorly studied very rare and declining endangered amphibian species endemic to China in Changyang County. We investigated adult census population size by monitoring breeding populations from 2015 to 2018, developed microsatellite markers from the transcriptome and used them to investigate genetic diversity, and a population bottleneck in this species. We found H. chinensis in 4 different localities in a total area of 2.18 km^2 and estimated the overall adult census population size at 386–404 individuals. The adult census size（mean ± SE） per breeding pond ranged from 44 ± 6 to 141 ± 8 individuals and appeared smaller than that reported in closely related species in undisturbed habitats. We developed and characterized 13 microsatellite markers in total. Analysis of data at 7 loci（N = 118） in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium gathered from the largest population showed that genetic diversity level was low. The average number of alleles per locus was 2.14. The observed and expected heterozygosities averaged 0.38 and 0.40, respectively. The inbreeding coefficient was –0.06. All tests performed to investigate a population bottleneck, i.e. The Garza-Williamson test, Heterozygosity excess test, Mode shift test of allele frequency, and effective population size estimates detected a population bottleneck. The contemporary and the historical effective population sizes were estimated at 36 and 234 individuals, respectively. We argue that as bottleneck effects, the studied population may have become prone to genetic drift and inbreeding, losing microsatellite alleles and heterozygosity. Our results suggest that populations of H. chinensismay have been extirpated in the study area.

Population assessment and habitat associations of the Visayan Hornbill(Penelopides panini)in Northwest Panay,Philippines

Background:Seven out of ten hornbill species in the Philippines are threatened with extinction.Among these is the endangered Visayan Hornbill(Penelopides panini),found on the islands of Panay and Negros.Threatened by habitat loss and hunting,its population size is thought to have declined from 1800 individuals 20 years ago to less than 1000.However,a recent study on Negros estimated 3564 individuals across three core forest blocks.This study aims to quantify the Visayan Hornbill population size in and around the Northwest Panay Peninsula Natural Park(NWPPNP)on Panay,the largest contiguous low-elevation forest landscape remaining across its range,and its broad habitat associations across a gradient of environmental degradation.Methods:Hornbills were surveyed using 10-min distance sampling point counts(n=367)along transects(average length 1.1 km).Environmental variables were recorded along transects,while habitat was classified into primary forest,secondary forest,plantation,or open habitat.Distance software was used to estimate population densities stratified by habitat,with the overall population estimate taken as a mean of habitat density estimates weighted by habitat area.Using generalized linear mixed models,hornbill occurrence was modelled using combinations of nine environmental variables as main and two-way fixed effects.Results:Surveys covered 204.4 km^(2) of the 374.8 km^(2) Northwest Panay Peninsula.Hornbills were not recorded in plantations or open habitats.Hornbill density was significantly higher in primary forest(17.8 individuals/km~2±26.9%CV)than in secondary forest(3.7 individuals/km^(2)±33.2%CV;z=15.212,P<0.001).The overall population estimate for the NWPPNP and environs is 2109 individuals,and 2673 individuals for the entire Northwest Panay Peninsula.Hornbill presence was best explained by a model including distance from the Park boundary alongside five interaction effects and transect as a random effect.Distance,and the interaction between distance and medium-sized trees were significant predictors of hornbill presence.Conclusions:Our study evidences the habitat preference of the Visayan Hornbill,highlights the importance of the NWPPNP for the species'conservation,and provides strong evidence for re-assessing the global population size.

Population size and distribution of seabirds in the Cosmonaut Sea,Southern Ocean

The Cosmonaut Sea is one of the less studied ecosystems in the Southern Hemisphere.Unlike other seas which were near to coastal regions,however,few studies exist on the top predators in this zone.From December 2019 to January 2020,a survey of seabirds was carried out on the board icebreaker R/V Xuelong 2 in the Cosmonaut Sea and the Cooperation Sea.Twenty-three bird species were recorded.Antarctic petrel(Thalassoica antarctica),Antarctic prion(Pachyptila desolata),and Arctic tern(Sterna paradisaea)were the most abundant species.A total of about 37500 birds belonging to 23 species were recorded.Around 23%of the region had no record of birds.A large number of birds was recorded in 39°E-40°E,44°E-46°E and 59°E-60°E.Many areas,such as 33°E-35°E,39°E-41°E,44°E-46°E and 59°E-60°E show a great richness.More than two-thirds of seabirds(71%)were observed in the zone near the ocean front.The prediction of the distributions of the most dominant species Antarctic petrel also showed that the area near the ocean front region had an important ecological significance for seabirds.The results suggest that the distribution of seabirds in the Cosmonaut Sea is highly heterogenous.

Evolution of the North Atlantic Current and Barents Ice Sheet as revealed by grain size populations in the northern Norwegian Sea during the last 60 ka

The grain size distribution of bulk sediment samples was decomposed in a core to reconstruct paleoceanographic evolution over the past 60 ka in the northern Norwegian Sea.The results show that sediments consisted of 3–4 grain populations derived from the North Atlantic Current(NAC)and Barents Ice Sheet(BIS).The grain size data suggest three palaeoceanographic evolution stages:(1)an environment affected by BIS and NAC and changed with the interstadial/stadial transition in phase with the Greenland ice-core record at 60–31 ka BP,during which discharge of icebergs and the content of the coarsest population containing ice-rafted debris(IRD)in the sediments increased significantly during stadial,while the fine silt population containing volcanic glasses increased with the enhancement of NAC during the interstadial;(2)an extreme environment controlled by BIS at31–13 ka BP.BIS reached to its maximum at about 31 ka BP and the turbid plumes that formed at the leading edge of BIS contributed to a significant increase in the clayey population in sediments.Icebergs drained into the northern Norwegian Sea with periodical calving of the BIS at 31–19 ka BP.Subsequently,the ablation of the BIS discharged massive floods with clayey sediments and icebergs into the Norwegian Sea at 19–13 ka BP,resulting in a constant increase in clay and IRD in sediments;and(3)a marine environment similar to the present one under the strong influence of NAC following the complete melting of the BIS after 13 ka BP,NAC is the dominant transport agent and no IRD occurred in sediments.The fine silt populations containing volcanic glasses transported by NAC significantly increased.

Urban Expansion of China from the 1970s to 2020 Based on Remote Sensing Technology

Based on Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) technology,urban expansion of 75 cities in China from the 1970s to 2020 was reconstructed by visual-interpretation method,which described the growing process of urban lands and its influences on local land use structures synchronously.By employing annual expansion area per city and urban expansion density,spatial-temporal characteristics and macro patterns of urban expansion were analyzed from the aspects of regional-distributions,administrative-levels and population-sizes comprehensively.Results indicate that:1) urban expansion in China was universal,distinct,persistent,periodic and fluctuating.In the past five decades,urban lands of 75 monitored cities in China expanded dramatically from 3606.26 km2 to 30 521.13 km2.2) Though urban expansion presented significant differences from the aspects of regional distribution,administrative levels,and population sizes,it exhibited a deceleration trend in the 13th Five-Year Plan among all kinds of cities.3) Cultivated lands were the first land resource for urban expansion,and 55.17% of newly-expanded urban lands appeared by encroaching this land use type.China’s urban expansion has caused sustained pressure on cultivated land protection,especially in super megacities,and the contradiction between urban expansion and cultivated land protection will always exist.4) The compactness of urban lands in China increased before 1987 and reduced in the next three decades,which was consistent with the implementation of major policies and the deployment of national strategies,and is expected to become compact with a stopping declining or even rebounding after the 13th Five-Year Plan.

A New Fuzzy Adaptive Genetic Algorithm

Multiple genetic algorithms (GAs) need a large population size, which will take a long time for evolution. A new fuzzy adaptive GA is proposed in this paper. This algorithm is more effective in global search while keeping the overall population size constant. The simulation results of function optimization show that with the proposed algorithm, the phenomenon of premature convergence can be overcome effectively, and a satisfying optimization result is obtained.

GLOBAL DYNAMICS OF AN SEIR EPIDEMIC MODEL WITH IMMIGRATION OF DIFFERENT COMPARTMENTS

The SEIR epidemic model studied here includes constant inflows of new susceptibles, exposeds, infectives, and recovereds. This model also incorporates a population size dependent contact rate and a disease-related death. As the infected fraction cannot be eliminated from the population, this kind of model has only the unique endemic equilibrium that is globally asymptotically stable. Under the special case where the new members of immigration are all susceptible, the model considered here shows a threshold phenomenon and a sharp threshold has been obtained. In order to prove the global asymptotical stability of the endemic equilibrium, the authors introduce the change of variable, which can reduce our four-dimensional system to a three-dimensional asymptotical autonomous system with limit equation.

Exploring the genetic features and signatures of selection in South China indigenous pigs

To explore the genetic features and signatures of selection in indigenous pigs from South China and Duroc pigs,259 pigs from six populations were genotyped using single-nucleotide polymorphism(SNP)BeadChips.Principal component analysis(PCA),effective population size(Ne),linkage disequilibrium(LD),and signatures of selection were explored and investigated among the six pig populations.The results showed the Ne of five South China indigenous pig populations has been decreasing rapidly since 100 generations ago.The LD between pairwise SNP distance at 100 kb ranged from 0.16 to 0.20 for the five indigenous pig populations,while it was 0.32 for the Duroc population.However,the LD of all six pig populations showed the opposite order at long distances(>5 Mb).Furthermore,15 potential signatures of selection associated with meat quality and age at puberty were exclusively detected in South China indigenous pigs,while eight potential signatures of selection associated with growth traits were detected in Duroc pigs.Our work provides valuable insights for the utilization and conservation of South China indigenous pigs.

Family genetic algorithms based on gene exchange and its application

Genetic Algorithms （GA） are a search techniques based on mechanics of nature selection and have already been successfully applied in many diverse areas. However, increasing samples show that GA＇s performance is not as good as it was expected to be. Criticism of this algorithm includes the slow speed and premature result during convergence procedure. In order to improve the performance, the population size and individuals＇ space is emphatically described. The influence of individuals＇ space and population size on the operators is analyzed. And a novel family genetic algorithm （FGA） is put forward based on this analysis. In this novel algorithm, the optimum solution families closed to quality individuals is constructed, which is exchanged found by a search in the world space. Search will be done in this microspace. The family that can search better genes in a limited period of time would win a new life. At the same time, the best gene of this micro space with the basic population in the world space is exchanged. Finally, the FGA is applied to the function optimization and image matching through several experiments. The results show that the FGA possessed high performance.

Update on the status of wolverines in China

The wolverine, Gulogulo, is an endangered species in China. This is the first report of the overall status of wolverines in China. The geographic distribution and population sizes of wolverines in the Greater Khingan and Altai Mountains were surveyed by line transect from1996–2000 and in 2011, respectively. We identified two geographically distinct groups in the Great Khingan Mountains, with a total population size of about 200 individuals throughout the region（approximately80,000 km^2）. Wolverines were also confirmed to be present in the Altai Mountains, where about 100 individuals occupied approximately 28,000 km^2 of mountain forest and tundra. Prey depletion and habitat loss, which are correlated with increasing human activities, are the main reasons for wolverine population declines in China.

Novel insights into the reproductive strategies of wild Chinese sturgeon(Acipenser sinensis)populations based on the kinship analysis

Understanding the reproductive strategy of an organism is important in conservation ecology as it directly affects the population performance under changing environmental conditions.Chinese sturgeon(Acipenser sinensis)are the largest anadromous fish in the Yangtze River,China.Currently,the species has only one spawning ground and has failed to spawn in recent years,leading it to the brink of extinction.To develop effective conservation measures,a further understanding of its reproductive strategy is needed.In our study,we conducted kinship analyses by using mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA data from 216 wild juveniles collected over nine years(2006
2013,2015)to understand the mating system,breeding interval,effective number of breeding adults,and reproductive success.The results from these analyses suggested polygynandry,with some parents contributing up to eight half-sibling juvenile genotypes.Although the spawning ground was restricted to a limited area,genetic diversity was maintained at a relatively high level(observed heterozygosity from 0.698 to 0.787 and expected heterozygosity from 0.763 to 0.787)and inbreeding coefficients in each year-class ranged from
1% to 9%(low to modest detrimental effects on offspring).A parental inference analysis revealed that Chinese sturgeon have a breeding interval of 2-6 years,indicating that it has the potential to feed,accumulate nutrition in the ocean,and then migrate back to the Yangtze River for iteroparous reproduction.The annual effective number of breeders in the Yangtze River ranged from 14 to 161 during the study period,and it decreased by 62.1%from the 2011
2014 year-classes.This sharp population decline likely contributes to the reproduction failure.However,the ratios of effective to census population size(Ne/Nc)were all larger than 0.20 after the 2010 year-class,indicating relatively even reproductive success.Based on these results,a suggested approach to protect this species is to restock parent fish to increase the reproductive stock size and optimize the discharge of the Three Gorges Dam to reduce the unsuitable hydrological conditions and rehabilitate spawning ground habitats.

Population genomics provides insights into the evolution and adaptation of tree shrews(Tupaia belangeri)in China

Physiological adaptation of tree shrews(Tupaia belangeri)to changing environmental temperature has been re-ported in detail.However,the T.belangeri origin(mainland or island),population history,and adaptation to histor-ical climate change remain largely unknown or controversial.Here,for thefirst time,we sequenced the simplified genome of 134 T.belangeri individuals from 12 populations in China and further resequenced one individual from each population.Using population genomic approaches,wefirst observed considerable genetic variation in T.be-langeri.Moreover,T.belangeri populations formed obvious genetic structure and reflected different demographic histories;they generally exhibited high genetic diversity,although the isolated populations had relatively low ge-netic diversity.The results presented in this study indicate that T.b.modesta and T.b.tonquinia were separated recently and with a similar population dynamics.Second,physical barriers rather than distance were the driving factors of divergence,and environmental heterogeneity may play an important role in genetic differentiation in T.belangeri.Moreover,our analyses highlight the role of historical global climates in the T.belangeri population dynamics and indicate that the decrease of the T.belangeri population size may be due to the low temperature.Finally,we identified the olfaction-associated adaptive genes between different altitude populations and found that olfactory-related genes of high-altitude populations were selectively eliminated.Our study provides demographic history knowledge of T.belangeri;their adaption history offers new insights into their evolution and adaptation,and provides valuable baseline information for conservation measures.