A New Algorithm of Rain Type Classification for GPM Dual-Frequency Precipitation Radar in Summer Tibetan Plateau

In this study, a new rain type classification algorithm for the Dual-Frequency Precipitation Radar(DPR) suitable over the Tibetan Plateau(TP) was proposed by analyzing Global Precipitation Measurement(GPM) DPR Level-2 data in summer from 2014 to 2020. It was found that the DPR rain type classification algorithm(simply called DPR algorithm) has mis-identification problems in two aspects in summer TP. In the new algorithm of rain type classification in summer TP,four rain types are classified by using new thresholds, such as the maximum reflectivity factor, the difference between the maximum reflectivity factor and the background maximum reflectivity factor, and the echo top height. In the threshold of the maximum reflectivity factors, 30 d BZ and 18 d BZ are both thresholds to separate strong convective precipitation, weak convective precipitation and weak precipitation. The results illustrate obvious differences of radar reflectivity factor and vertical velocity among the three rain types in summer TP, such as the reflectivity factor of most strong convective precipitation distributes from 15 d BZ to near 35 d BZ from 4 km to 13 km, and increases almost linearly with the decrease in height. For most weak convective precipitation, the reflectivity factor distributes from 15 d BZ to 28 d BZ with the height from 4 km to 9 km. For weak precipitation, the reflectivity factor mainly distributes in range of 15–25 d BZ with height within 4–10 km. It is also shows that weak precipitation is the dominant rain type in summer TP, accounting for 40%–80%,followed by weak convective precipitation(25%–40%), and strong convective precipitation has the least proportion(less than 30%).

Study on Quantitative Precipitation Estimation by Polarimetric Radar Using Deep Learning

Accurate radar quantitative precipitation estimation(QPE)plays an essential role in disaster prevention and mitigation.In this paper,two deep learning-based QPE networks including a single-parameter network and a multi-parameter network are designed.Meanwhile,a self-defined loss function(SLF)is proposed during modeling.The dataset includes Shijiazhuang S-band dual polarimetric radar(CINRAD/SAD)data and rain gauge data within the radar’s 100-km detection range during the flood season of 2021 in North China.Considering that the specific propagation phase shift(KDP)has a roughly linear relationship with the precipitation intensity,KDP is set to 0.5°km^(-1 )as a threshold value to divide all the rain data(AR)into a heavy rain(HR)and light rain(LR)dataset.Subsequently,12 deep learning-based QPE models are trained according to the input radar parameters,the precipitation datasets,and whether an SLF was adopted,respectively.The results suggest that the effects of QPE after distinguishing rainfall intensity are better than those without distinguishing,and the effects of using SLF are better than those that used MSE as a loss function.A Z-R relationship and a ZH-KDP-R synthesis method are compared with deep learning-based QPE.The mean relative errors(MRE)of AR models using SLF are improved by 61.90%,51.21%,and 56.34%compared with the Z-R relational method,and by 38.63%,42.55%,and 47.49%compared with the synthesis method.Finally,the models are further evaluated in three precipitation processes,which manifest that the deep learning-based models have significant advantages over the traditional empirical formula methods.

Quantitative Precipitation Estimation Using X-band Phased Array Weather Radar

This study utilized data from an X-band phased array weather radar and ground-based rain gauge observations to conduct a quantitative precipitation estimation(QPE)analysis of a heavy rainfall event in Xiong an New Area from 20:00 on August 21 to 07:00 on August 22,2022.The analysis applied the Z-R relationship method for radar-based precipitation estimation and evaluated the QPE algorithm s performance using scatter density plots and binary classification scores.The results indicated that the QPE algorithm accurately estimates light to moderate rainfall but significantly underestimates heavy rainfall.The study identified disparities in the predictive accuracy of the QPE algorithm across various precipitation intensity ranges,offering essential insights for the further refinement of QPE techniques.

Percentile-based Neighborhood Precipitation Verification and Its Application to a Landfalling Tropical Storm Case with Radar Data Assimilation

The traditional threat score based on fixed thresholds for precipitation verification is sensitive to intensity forecast bias. In this study, the neighborhood precipitation threat score is modified by defining the thresholds in terms of the percentiles of overall precipitation instead of fixed threshold values. The impact of intensity forecast bias on the calculated threat score is reduced. The method is tested with the forecasts of a tropical storm that re-intensified after making landfall and caused heavy flooding. The forecasts are produced with and without radar data assimilation. The forecast with assimilation of both radial velocity and reflectivity produce precipitation patterns that better match observations but have large positive intensity bias. When using fixed thresholds, the neighborhood threat scores fail to yield high scores for forecasts that have good pattern match with observations, due to large intensity bias. In contrast, the percentile-based neighborhood method yields the highest score for the forecast with the best pattern match and the smallest position error. The percentile-based method also yields scores that are more consistent with object-based verifications, which are less sensitive to intensity bias, demonstrating the potential value of percentile-based verification.

Precipitation Microphysical Processes in the Inner Rainband of Tropical Cyclone Kajiki (2019) over the South China Sea Revealed by Polarimetric Radar

Polarimetric radar and 2D video disdrometer observations provide new insights into the precipitation microphysical processes and characteristics in the inner rainband of tropical cyclone(TC)Kajiki(2019)in the South China Sea for the first time.The precipitation of Kajiki is dominated by high concentrations and small(<3 mm)raindrops,which contribute more than 98%to the total precipitation.The average mass-weighted mean diameter and logarithmic normalized intercept are 1.49 mm and 4.47,respectively,indicating a larger mean diameter and a lower concentration compared to the TCs making landfall in eastern China.The ice processes of the inner rainband are dramatically different among different stages.The riming process is dominant during the mature stage,while during the decay stage the aggregation process is dominant.The vertical profiles of the polarimetric radar variables together with ice and liquid water contents in the convective region indicate that the formation of precipitation is dominated by warm-rain processes.Large raindrops collect cloud droplets and other raindrops,causing reflectivity,differential reflectivity,and specific differential phase to increase with decreasing height.That is,accretion and coalescence play a critical role in the formation of heavy rainfall.The melting of different particles generated by the ice process has a great influence on the initial raindrop size distribution(DSD)to further affect the warm-rain processes.The DSD above heavy rain with the effect of graupel has a wider spectral width than the region without the effect of graupel.

Operational Evaluation of the Quantitative Precipitation Estimation by a CINRAD-SA Dual Polarization Radar System

In this paper,a quantitative precipitation estimation based on the hydrometeor classification(HCA-QPE)algorithm was proposed for the first operational S band dual-polarization radar upgraded from the CINRAD/SA radar of China.The HCA-QPE algorithm,localized Colorado State University-Hydrometeor Identification of Rainfall(CSUHIDRO)algorithm,the Joint Polarization Experiment(JPOLE)algorithm,and the dynamic Z-R relationships based on variational correction QPE(DRVC-QPE)algorithm were evaluated with the rainfall events from March 1 to October 30,2017 in Guangdong Province.The results indicated that even though the HCA-QPE algorithm did not use the observed rainfall data for correction,its estimation accuracy was better than that of the DRVC-QPE algorithm when the rainfall rate was greater than 5 mm h-1;and the stronger the rainfall intensity,the greater the QPE improvement.Besides,the HCA-QPE algorithm worked better than the localized CSU-HIDRO and JPOLE algorithms.This study preliminarily evaluated the improved accuracy of QPE by a dual-polarization radar system modified from CINRAD-SA radar.

Application of X-band Polarimetric Phased-array Radars in Quantitative Precipitation Estimation

The performance of different quantitative precipitation estimation(QPE) relationships is examined using the polarimetric variables from the X-band polarimetric phased-array radars in Guangzhou,China.Three QPE approaches,namely,R(ZH),R(ZH,ZDR) and R(KDP),are developed for horizontal reflectivity,differential reflectivity and specific phase shift rate,respectively.The estimation parameters are determined by fitting the relationships to the observed radar variables using the T-matrix method.The QPE relationships were examined using the data of four heavy precipitation events in southern China.The examination shows that the R(ZH) approach performs better for the precipitation rate less than 5 mm h-1, and R(KDP) is better for the rate higher than 5 mm h-1, while R(ZH,ZDR) has the worst performance.An adaptive approach is developed by taking the advantages of both R(ZH) and R(KDP) approaches to improve the QPE accuracy.

A STUDY ON VARIABLE QUANTITATIVE PRECIPITATION ESTIMATION USING DOPPLER RADAR DATA

With the pros and cons of the traditional optimization and probability pairing methods thoroughly considered, an improved optimal pairing window probability technique is developed using a dynamic relationship between the base reflectivity Z observed by radar and real time precipitation I by rain gauge. Then, the Doppler radar observations of base reflectivity for typhoons Haitang and Matsa in Wenzhou are employed to establish various Z-I relationships, which are subsequently used to estimate hourly precipitation of the two typhoons. Such estimations are calibrated by variational techniques. The results show that there exist significant differences in the Z-I relationships for the typhoons, leading to different typhoon precipitation efficiencies. The typhoon precipitation estimated by applying radar base reflectivity is capable of exhibiting clearly the spiral rain belts and mesoscale cells, and well matches the observed rainfall. Error statistical analyses indicate that the estimated typhoon precipitation is better with variational calibration than the one without. The variational calibration technique is able to maintain the characteristics of the distribution of radar-estimated typhoon precipitation, and to significantly reduce the error of the estimated precipitation in comparison with the observed rainfall.

Artificial Precipitation Enhancement Weather System and the Operation Timing in Shenyang Area

By using the mathematical statistics and classification,the artificial precipitation enhancement cases in Shenyang area were analyzed.The results showed that the precipitation enhancement weather systems mainly included the northeast cold vortex,high-altitude trough,North China low-pressure,high-pressure rear and cold front cloud system.The appropriate height of precipitation enhancement was about 3 000-6 000 m in the middle and upper part of the cloud layer.The timing of precipitation enhancement should be in the radar's monitoring.The systems moved slowly or maintained stably in the developing or mature stages.The aircraft rainfall enhancement should be used in the stable and deep cloud layers.The rocket and antiaircraft gun rainfall enhancement should be used in the unstable move.

Analysis of Short-term Heavy Precipitations in a Regional Heavy Rainstorm in Shannxi Province

[Objective] This study aimed to analyze the cause of the generation of short-term heavy precipitations in a regional heavy rainstorm in Shannxi Province. [Method] Taking a heavy rainstorm covering most parts of Shaanxi Province in late July 2010 as an example, data of five Doppler weather radars in Shaanxi Province were employed for a detailed analysis of the evolution of the heavy rainstorm pro- cess. [Result] Besides the good large-scale weather background conditions, the de- velopment and evolution of some mesoscale and small-scale weather systems direct- ly led to short-term heavy precipitations during the heavy rainstorm process, involv- ing the intrusion of moderate IS-scale weak cold air and presence of small-scale wind shear, convergence and adverse wind area. In addition, small-scale convection echoes were arranged in lines and formed a ＂train effect＂, which would also con- tribute to the generation of short-term heavy precipitation. [Conclusion] This study provided basic information for more clear and in-depth analysis of the formation mechanism of short-term heavy precipitations.

Seasonal Characteristics of Precipitation in 1998 over East Asia as Derived from TRMM PR

Precipitation radar data derived from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite are used to study precipitation characteristics in 1998 over East Asia (10?38癗, 100C-145癊), especially over mid-latitude land (continental land) and ocean (East China Sea and South China Sea). Results are compared with precipitations in the tropics. Yearly statistics show dominant stratiform rain events over East Asia (about 83.7% by area fraction) contributing to 50% of the total precipitation. Deep convective rains contribute 48% to the total precipitation with a 13.7% area fraction. The statistics also show the unimportance of warm convective rain in East Asia, contributing 1.5% to the total precipitation with a 2.7% area fraction. On a seasonal scale, the results indicate that the rainfall ratio of stratiform rain to deep convective rain is proportional to their rainfall pixel ratio. Seasonal precipitation patterns compare well between Global Precipitation Climatology Project rainfall and TRMM PR measurements except in summer. Studies indicate a clear opposite shift of rainfall amount and events between deep convective and stratiform rains in the meridional in East Asia, which corresponds to the alternative activities of summer monsoon and winter monsoon in the region. The vertical structures of precipitation also exhibit strong seasonal variability in precipitation Contoured Rainrate by Altitude Diagrams (CRADs) and mean profiles in the mid-latitudes of East Asia. However, these structures in the South China Sea are of a tropical type except in winter. The analysis of CRADs reveals a wide range of surface rainfall rates for most deep convective rains, especially in the continental land, and light rain rate for most stratiform rains in East Asia, regardless of over land or ocean.

Tropical Precipitation Estimated by GPCP and TRMM PR Observations

In this study, tropical monthly mean precipitation estimated by the latest Global Precipitation Climatology Project （GPCP） version 2 dataset and Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission Precipitation Radar （TRMM PR） are compared in temporal and spatial scales in order to comprehend tropical rainfall climatologically. Reasons for the rainfall differences derived from both datasets are discussed. Results show that GPCP and TRMM PR datasets present similar distribution patterns over the Tropics but with some differences in amplitude and location. Generally, the average difference over the ocean of about 0.5 mm d^-1 is larger than that of about 0.1 mm d^-1 over land. Results also show that GPCP tends to underestimate the monthly precipitation over the land region with sparse rain gauges in contrast to regions with a higher density of rain gauge stations. A Probability Distribution Function （PDF） analysis indicates that the GPCP rain rate at its maximum PDF is generally consistent with the TRMM PR rain rate as the latter is less than 8 mm d^-1. When the TRMM PR rain rate is greater than 8 mm d^-1, the GPCP rain rate at its maximum PDF is less by at least 1 mm d^-1 compared to TRMM PR estimates. Results also show an absolute bias of less than 1 mm d^-1 between the two datasets when the rain rate is less than 10 mm d^-1. A large relative bias of the two datasets occurs at weak and heavy rain rates.

A Short-Range Quantitative Precipitation Forecast Algorithm Using Back-Propagation Neural Network Approach

A back-propagation neural network （BPNN） was used to establish relationships between the shortrange （0-3-h） rainfall and the predictors ranging from extrapolative forecasts of radar reflectivity, satelliteestimated cloud-top temperature, lightning strike rates, and Nested Grid Model （NGM） outputs. Quan- titative precipitation forecasts （QPF） and the probabilities of categorical precipitation were obtained. Results of the BPNN algorithm were compared to the results obtained from the multiple linear regression algorithm for an independent dataset from the 1999 warm season over the continental United States. A sample forecast was made over the southeastern United States. Results showed that the BPNN categorical rainfall forecasts agreed well with Stage Ⅲ observations in terms of the size and shape of the area of rainfall. The BPNN tended to over-forecast the spatial extent of heavier rainfall amounts, but the positioning of the areas with rainfall ≥25.4 mm was still generally accurate. It appeared that the BPNN and linear regression approaches produce forecasts of very similar quality, although in some respects BPNN slightly outperformed the regression.

Error analysis of non-spherical raindrops on precipitation measurement

Radar cross section （RCS） of non-sphericai raindrops is calculated by using the software CST based on finite integral method and compared with RCS of spherical raindrops. The revised factor of non-spherical raindrops is obtained. The radar reflectivity with precipitation change of four distribution models of M-P, Gamma, JD and JT combining the revised factor is gotten using trapezoidal integration. When the infuence of non-spherical raindrops is considered, the accuracy of precipitation measurement of four distribution models can be separately improved 8.77%, 8.47%, 10.53% and 8.04% in the case of rain intensity is 100 mm/h.

Morphological Characteristics of Precipitation Areas over the Tibetan Plateau Measured by TRMM PR

The multidimensional morphological characteristics(including scale, horizontal shape and 3 D morphology) of precipitation areas over the Tibetan Plateau in summer were studied using 15 years(1998–2012) of observational data from the precipitation radar onboard the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite. As the scale of the precipitation area increased from 20 to 150 km, the near-surface rain rate(RRav) of the precipitation area increased by up to 78%(from ~1.12 to ~2 mm h~(-1)). Linear precipitation areas had the lowest median RRav(~1 mm h~(-1) over the eastern Tibetan Plateau),whereas square-shaped precipitation areas had the highest median RRav(~1.58 mm h~(-1) over the eastern Tibetan Plateau).The 3D morphology was defined as the ratio of the average vertical scale to the average horizontal scale, where a large value corresponds to thin and tall, and a small value corresponds to plump and short. Thin-and-tall precipitation areas and plump-and-short precipitation areas had a greater median RRav, whereas the precipitation areas with a moderate 3D morphology had the lowest median RRav. The vertical structure of the precipitation-area reflectivity was sensitive to both size and 3D morphology, but was not sensitive to the horizontal shape. The relationship between RRav and the morphological characteristics was most significant over the southern slopes of the Tanggula Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau east of 100°E. The morphological characteristics of precipitation areas are therefore closely related to the intensity of precipitation and could potentially be used to forecast precipitation and verify numerical models.

A Comprehensive Observational Analysis for the Effects of Gas Cannons on Clouds and Precipitation

To analyze the effects of gas cannons on clouds and precipitation,multisource observational data,including those from National Centers for Environmental Prediction(NCEP)reanalysis,Hangzhou and Huzhou new-generation weather radars,laser disdrometer,ground-based automatic weather station,wind profiler radar,and Lin'an C-band dualpolarization radar,were adopted in this study.Based on the variational dual-Doppler wind retrieval method and the polarimetric variables obtained by the dual-polarization radar,we analyzed the microphysical processes and the variations in the macro-and microphysical quantities in clouds from the perspective of the synoptic background before precipitation enhancement,the polarization echo characteristics before,during and after enhancement,and the evolution of the fine three-dimensional kinematic structure and the microphysical structure.The results show that the precipitation enhancement operation promoted the development of radar echoes and prolonged their duration,and both the horizontal and vertical wind speeds increased.The dual-polarization radar echo showed that the diameter of the precipitation particles increased,and the concentration of raindrops increased after precipitation enhancement.The raindrops were lifted to a height corresponding to 0 to-20℃due to vertical updrafts.Based on the disdrometer data during precipitation enhancement,the concentration of small raindrops(lgN_(w))showed a significant increase,and the mass-weighted diameter D_(m)value decreased,indicating that the precipitation enhancement operation played a certain“lubricating”effect.After the precipitation enhancement,the concentration of raindrops did not change much compared with that during the enhancement process,while the Dm increased,corresponding to an increase in rain intensity.The results suggest the positive effect of gas cannons on precipitation enhancement.

Comparative Analysis of Two Short-time Strong Precipitation Processes

By means of conceptual model prediction, two short-time strong precipitation processes in Xiamen on June 12th and 14th, 2008 were analyzed from the aspects of real precipitation, weather situation, physical parameter and radar echo. The results showed that two short-time strong precipitation processes had complete different weather backgrounds, so physical quantities which could reflect atmospheric thermal and dynamic characteristic were different, as well as the characteristic and evolution process of radar echo, and it revealed that two short-time strong precipitation processes in Xiamen had various formation mechanisms and evolution processes. Therefore, many data should be combined to grasp different vantage points in precipitation forecast.

Analysis of Airplane Precipitation Operation on Embedded Convective Clouds in Hunan Province

Based on NCEP 1°×1° reanalysis data, ground encryption houdy precipitation, FY-2E stationary satellite and Doppler radar data, the structural characteristics of precipitation clouds in Hunan Province and the effects of airplane precipitation operation were analyzed. The results show that under the effects of low-pressure system and southwest monsoon, Hunan was rich in water vapor, which was beneficial to the maintaining of precipitation clouds. During the process of the artificial precipitation operation over Hunan Province, convection developed vigorously, and precipita- tion was strong in the south of the province; embedded convective clouds were dominant and precipitation was weak in the east of the province. Cloud optical thickness correlated with ground precipitation positively. After catalyzing, echo at high altitudes responded firstly, and the echo intensi- ty increased gradually; the response of low-altitude echo lagged behind that of high-altitude echo. It shows that catalysis could lead to increase of upper precipitation particles in size and quantity. As time goes on, upper precipitation particles descended to low altitudes, so that echo intensity in- creased at low altitudes. It is clearly seen that catalysis could lead to increase of echo intensity and prolong the lifetime of target clouds to improve the area of strong echo zone, showing obvious positive catalytic effect. At the same time, houdy average precipitation in the affected region tended to increase stably and was obviously more than that of the contrast region where hourly average precipitation reduced gradually with time. The changing trend of hourly average precipitation in the affected region correlated positively with the response of radar echo.

Testing gridded NWS 1-day observed precipitation analysis in a daily irrigation scheduler

One of the inputs required by daily decision support tools for scheduling irrigation is the amount of water supplied by rainfall. In-field measurements of daily precipitation are expensive or laborious, while measurements from gauges within a few kilometers are frequently not representative due to the high spatiotemporal variability of precipitation. Online radarbased precipitation analyses from NOAA’s National Weather Service (NWS) have obvious potential to provide the needed data, but are known to have varying degrees of accuracy with location and conditions. The NWS precipitation analysis is computed on a 4 km × 4 km grid, so differences should also be expected between the product and individual gauge measurements under each grid cell. In order to test the utility of the NWS precipitation analysis in a daily irrigation scheduler, daily data were gathered in July 2012 from 18 weather stations under 2 NWS precapitation analysis grid cells across instru-mented research and production fields in the Mississippi Delta. Differences between individual station measurements and the NWS precipitation analysis are examined, and root-zone daily soil water deficits computed using both station data and the NWS precipitation analysis. Sub-grid spatial variability between gauge locations, and differences in precipitation between gauges and the gridded NWS analysis, are found to be similar to those reported elsewhere. Differences between time series of soil water deficit computed using the two different precipitation data sources are noted, but prove to be of limited impact on the decision to irrigate or not to irrigate. It is also noted that profile-filling rainfalls limit the impact of accumulating error, resetting the modeled soil water to “full”. Given the Delta-local practice of irrigating to replace full evapotranspirational water used, use of the NWS daily precipitation analysis data as input for a daily irrigation scheduler is judged not only acceptable, but also preferable to other sources of daily precipitation data.

A Novel Method for Precipitation Nowcasting Based on ST-LSTM

Precipitation nowcasting is of great significance for severe convective weather warnings.Radar echo extrapolation is a commonly used precipitation nowcasting method.However,the traditional radar echo extrapolation methods are encountered with the dilemma of low prediction accuracy and extrapolation ambiguity.The reason is that those methods cannot retain important long-term information and fail to capture short-term motion information from the long-range data stream.In order to solve the above problems,we select the spatiotemporal long short-term memory(ST-LSTM)as the recurrent unit of the model and integrate the 3D convolution operation in it to strengthen the model’s ability to capture short-term motion information which plays a vital role in the prediction of radar echo motion trends.For the purpose of enhancing the model’s ability to retain long-term important information,we also introduce the channel attention mechanism to achieve this goal.In the experiment,the training and testing datasets are constructed using radar data of Shanghai,we compare our model with three benchmark models under the reflectance thresholds of 15 and 25.Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed model outperforms the three benchmark models in radar echo extrapolation task,which obtains a higher accuracy rate and improves the clarity of the extrapolated image.