Legal Impediments to Proper Cultural Heritage Management in Ethiopia： An Assessment on Three Proclamations

This article examines the legal impediments to proper cultural heritage management in Ethiopia in light of three successive Ethiopian governments’ proclamations on cultural heritage conservation. It provides a brief overview of the meaning and types of cultural heritages as well as the evolution of the concept and practice of the protection and preservation of cultural heritages. Having critically analyzed the basic essences of the legal provisions of the cultural heritage conservation proclamations of the Imperial, the Military （Derg）, and the reigning governments, the article argues that the decrees issued mainly reflect the political philosophy of the three respective regimes. As a result, the second legal provision is not better than the first one, and within the same logic, the third is more expected to mitigate the problems related to cultural heritage management than the second one. Nevertheless, it is an open secret that the destruction and loss of cultural heritages in Ethiopia are increasing from time to time. Finally, the article provides conclusions consisting of recommendations to address the legal impediments to proper cultural heritage management in Ethiopia.

The Role of the“Traditional Chinese Medicine Proclamation”in Cholera Prevention and Control in Modern China

During the period of social transformation in modern China,the sudden onslaught of malignant infectious diseases,the helplessness of the public,and the impact of the modern Western medical system promoted the profound self‑revolution of traditional Chinese medicine(TCM).Multiple factors,including politics,economy or religion contributed to the formulation of paper-based“TCM proclamation”.This paper,based on the prevention and control of cholera advocated in TCM proclamation,analyzes the new ways of cholera spread in China in early modern times and the complicated“country‑region‑medical institutions‑other institutions‑individuals”correlations.

The Role of the “Traditional Chinese Medicine Proclamation” in Cholera Prevention and Control in Modern China

During the period of social transformation in modem China,the sudden onslaught of malignant infectious diseases,the helplessness of the public,and the impact of the modem Western medical system promoted the profoimd self-revolution of traditional Chinese medicine(TCM).Multiple factors,including politics,economy or religion contributed to the formulation of paper-based“TCM proclamation”.This paper,based on the prevention and control of cholera advocated in TCM proclamation,analyzes the new ways of cholera spread in China in early modem times and the complicated“country-region-medical instilulions-other institutions-individuals”correlations.

Looking at the cultural heritage proclamations of Ethiopia:conceptualisation and management of cultural heritage

The main purpose of this paper is to explore how the conceptualisation and management of cultural heritage have been treated in the cultural heritage proclamations of Ethiopia.The analysis of the four cultural heritage proclamations reveals that the notion of cultural heritage improves from the frst to the fourth proclamation.In the first two proclamations,the term antiquity was employed,and the latter two employed the term of cultural heritage.The 1966 proclamation included antiquities that were dated prior to 1850 EC,while the 1989 proclamation removed this cutoff date and expounded upon the definition of antiquities.The 2000 proclamation replaced the term antiquity with cultural heritage and introduced the concept of intangible cultural heritage.In terms of the management of cultural heritage,the differences between the 1989 and 2000 proclamations are quite minimal.The 2014 proclamation attempted to classify cultural heritage into national and regional cultural heritage.It also defined important components of intangible cultural heritage.The management of cultural heritage exhibits some evolution from the first to the last proclamation.However,due to the diversified nature of cultural heritage conceptualisation and management,it will be important for additional legislation to be issued separately for movable,immovable and intangible cultural heritage,for example.This study argues that strong legal and institutional frameworks should be established to properly protect,conserve and study cultural heritage.

A Glimpse into Elizabethan Fashion:From Immoral Excess to Sumptuary Laws

The accession of the Tudor dynasty to the English throne marked England’s transition into the modern age and a confrontation with new challenges both in culture and politics.The growth of a new wealthy middle class brought about confusion and disorder,threatening the superiority of an aristocracy that had stood the test of time.Throughout the Elizabethan age,when luxurious clothes signified social position and declared an aspiration of rank,apparel proved to be the medium through which such confusion became evident.Moral righteousness was the real concern for both Church and State:homilies against excess in apparel were read in churches,calling for sobriety as a virtue indispensable to the salvation of the soul.Urged through necessity and by preachers like Philippe Stubbes,Elizabeth I’s Parliament passed sumptuary proclamations to restrict clothing and impose social order on the basis of economic income.Convinced that costly attire was a cause of poverty and crime,Elizabeth’s proclamations on apparel were,with the exception of the law passed in 1559,based on Henry VIII’s law of 1533,but were no longer negative or prohibitive in character,simply establishing what the people had to do and wear.

England, Holland, and the Fishing Wars

The Dutch herring trade contributed greatly to Dutch commercial prosperity. The most profitable Dutch fishing grounds, however, were off the coasts of England and Scotland. For centuries, the English allowed the Dutch to fish these waters. During the reign of James I, however, the changing English perspective of the Dutch led the English Crown to question the right of the Dutch to fish in English waters. In the fishing trade, centuries of cooperation gave way to an emerging commercial rivalry.

The Executive and the Environment： An Examination of the Antiquities Act （1929-2000）

An ongoing debate exists amongst scholars studying presidential unilateral powers. Some scholars argue presidents use directives to circumvent Congress （Nathan, 1983; Deering ＆ Maltzman, 1999; Cooper, 2002）, while other scholars argue that presidents use them to enhance their policy in conjunction with Congress in times of strong congressional support （Shull ＆ Gomez, 1997; Krause ＆ Cohen, 1997）. This study applies the same theoretical debate to another presidential unilateral power, monument proclamations. The author argued that presidents strategically issue monument proclamations when they face a hostile political environment and have lost their power of persuasion. The author examined presidential monument proclamations from 1929-2000 using an event-count model. The study shows that presidents are more inclined to use monumental proclamations when they are politically weak especially during their lame duck months when they have the least political power and influence.

The Mantetsu Employee Association and Mukden Incident

The Mantetsu Employee Association(MEA)was a complex organization with various platforms,whose importance had not been acknowledged at the beginning of its establishment.After the outbreak of the Mukden Incident,MEA published two“Proclamations,”blatantly boasting of the“triumph”of Japanese invasion.Its members directly took part in military actions of the Kwantung Army,assisted the Kwantung Army with invasion,and performed actively in plotting the illegal establishment of Manchukuo.After Japan’s occupation of Northeast China,MEA regularly organized grand memorial activities to the Incident,so as to strengthen the consolidation of“Japanese in Manchuria.”MEA was an important force in Japan’s colonization of Northeast China,which endeavored to support Japan’s colonial rule in the region.