The Quantum Chromodynamics Gas Density Drop and the General Theory of Relativity Ether

β decay is one of the most fundamental and thoroughly studied nuclear decay. Surprisingly, the β decay rates were found to have a periodic time variability [1]. However, others argued that there is no evidence for such cyclic deviation from the exponential first order kinetics decay law [2]. Here we propose that the β decay is a pseudo-first order exchange reaction triggered by uddũexotic mesons and propose a QCD gas theory. In analogy to the atmospheric gas density, the proposed QCD gas density drops with elevation from the sun. Accordingly, we propose that the β decay rate periodic variability is due to the pseudo-first order exchange reaction kinetics and the QCD gas atmospheric density drop. The proposed QCD gas may be a possible candidate for Einstein’s general theory of relativity ether [3]. Our main results are the derived formulas for calculating the effective mass of the QCD gas and the cosmology perfect fluid equation of state dimensionless parameter, based on the measured ratio of the β decay rates at the earth trajectory aphelion and perihelion dates. .

Gluon Propagator in a New Perturbative Expansion of Quantum Chromodynamics with a Non-Perturbative Background

Using a new perturbative expansion method in Quantum Chromodynamics with a non-perturbative gluon background, the gluon propagator is calculated up to the one-loop level, and renormalized in the modified minimal subtraction scheme. The resultant renormalization constants of the quantum gluon field and the gauge parameter receive a non-perturbative contribution coming from the gluon condensate <FF> besides the usual perturbative one, respectively.

Discussion of Various Susceptibilities within Thermal and Dense Quantum Chromodynamics

It is commonly accepted that the system undergoes a crossover at high temperature and low chemical potential beyond the chiral limit case, and the properties of the crossover region are important for researchers to understand the nature of strong interacting matters of quantum chromodynamics （QCD）. Since at present there is no exact order of parameters of the phase transitions beyond the chiral limit, QCD susceptibilities are widely used as indicators. In this work various susceptibilities are discussed in the framework of Dyson-Schwinger equations. The results show that different kinds of susceptibilities give the same critical end point, which is the bifurcation point of the crossover region and the first order phase transition line of QCD. Nevertheless, different pseudo- critical points are found in the temperature axis. We think that defining a critical band is more suitable in the crossover region.

QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS

9.1. Basics Quantum Chromodynamics （QCD）, the gauge field theory that describes the strong interactions of colored quarks and gluons, is the SU（3） component of the SU（3）×SU（2）×U（1） Standard Model of Particle Physics.

LATTICE QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS

Updated September 2013 by S. Hashimoto （KEK）, J. Laiho （Syracuse University）, and S.R. Sharpe （University of Washington）. 18.1. Lattice regularization of QCD

A New Theory Exploring the Internal Structure of Quarks

This paper introduces a novel theoretical model that reimagines the internal structure of quarks as superfluid vortices formed during the Quark Epoch of the Big Bang. The proposed theory challenges the traditional view of quarks as point-like entities without internal structure, offering instead a hydrodynamic perspective that aligns with the principles of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). By considering quarks as vortices in a frictionless superfluid vacuum, the model provides new insights into their mass, charge, spin, and interactions. The formalism presented in this work utilizes hydrodynamic principles to model quarks as irrotational circular vortices, calculating key properties such as charge radius, mass, and density. The calculations are grounded in the application of vortex dynamics, including the evaluation of circulation, vorticity, and the balance of forces within the quantum fluid. The resulting quark radius and mass are shown to be consistent with known experimental ranges, providing a strong validation of the vortex-based formalism. The theory also explores the implications of this vortex model on the stability of quarks within protons and neutrons, and how quark-antiquark pairs (mesons) and three-quark structures (baryons) can be understood as interactions between these vortices. Additionally, the model predicts specific quark properties such as charge radius and density, which are consistent with experimental observations and current understandings of subatomic particle physics. Furthermore, this approach elucidates the strong force’s role as an interaction between these vortices, mediated by gluons in the quantum fluid. The proposed model not only aligns with existing experimental data but also paves the way for further exploration into the complex behaviors of quarks and their role in the fundamental structure of matter.

BEST合作组QCD相图研究进展

能量扫描理论合作组(Beam Energy Scan Theory Collaboration,BEST)的目标是建立一个可以描述美国相对论重离子对撞机(Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider,RHIC)上第二期能量扫描实验的动力学框架。该实验有可能找到强相互作用相图上的临界点。本文总结自2016年起,BEST合作组取得重要进展,并对未来探索中高密度区相图做了展望。

Hubble Tension versus the Cosmic Evolution of Hubble Parameter in the Unicentric Model of the Observable Universe

Recently, a unicentric model of the observable universe (UNIMOUN) was proposed. Accordingly, big bangs are common events in our infinitely large, flat, homogeneous and isotropic parent universe. Their progenitors are clusters of cosmically dead and massive neutron stars that merged after reaching the ultimate lowest quantum energy state, where the matter is in an incompressible superconducting gluon-quark superfluid state and zero-entropy, hence granting the resulting progenitors measurable sizes and immunity to collapsing into black holes. Our big bang happened to occur in our neighbourhood, thereby enduing the universe, the observed homogeneity and isotropy. As the enclosed mass of the progenitor was finite, the dynamically expanding curved spacetimes embedded the fireball started flattening to finally diffuse into the flat spacetime of the parent universe. By means of general relativistic numerical hydrodynamical calculations, we use the H-metric to follow the time-evolution of the spacetime embedding the progenitor during the hadronization and the immediately following epochs. Based thereon, we find that the kinetic energy of newly created normal matter increases with distance in a self-similar manner, imitating thereby outflows of nearly non-interacting particles. On cosmic time scales, this behaviour yields a Hubble parameter, H(t), which decreases slowly with the distance from the big bang event. Given the sensitivity of the data of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) from Planck to the underlying cosmological model, we conclude that UNIMOUN is a viable alternative to ΛCMD-cosmologies.

Off-Shell Longitudinal Photon Light-Cone Wavefunction in the Low-Energy Effective Theory of QCD

Within the framework of the low-energy effective theory arising from the instanton vacuum model of QCD, the longitudinal virtual photon light-cone wavefunction, ФγⅡ（u, P^2）, corresponding to the nonlocal quark-antiquark vector current is calculated at the low-energy scale. The coupling constant, Fγ（P^2） or equivalently fγ（P^2）, of the quark antiquark vector current to the virtual photon state is also obtained by imposing the normalization condition to the photon wavefunction. The behaviour of the coupling constant as well as the obtained photon wavefunction is discussed.

Does Our Universe Conform with the Existence of a Universal Maximum Energy-Density <i>p_max<sup style="margin-left:-30px;">uni</sup></i>

Recent astronomical observations of high redshift quasars, dark matter-dominated galaxies, mergers of neutron stars, glitch phenomena in pulsars, cosmic microwave background and experimental data from hadronic colliders do not rule out, but they even support the hypothesis that the energy-density in our universe most likely is upper-limited by pmaxuni which is predicted to lie between 2 to 3 the nuclear density p0. Quantum fluids in the cores of massive NSs with p ≈ pmaxuni each the maximum compressibility state, where they become insensitive to further compression by the embedding spacetime and undergo a phase transition into the purely incompressible gluon-quark superfluid state. A direct correspondence between the positive energy stored in the embedding spacetime and the degree of compressibility and superfluidity of the trapped matter is proposed. In this paper relevant observational signatures that support the maximum density hypothesis are reviewed, a possible origin of pmaxuni is proposed and finally the consequences of this scenario on the spacetime’s topology of the universe as well as on the mechanisms underlying the growth rate and power of the high redshift QSOs are discussed.

Quark-Number Susceptibility at Finite Chemical Potential and Zero Temperature

We give a direct method for calculating the quark-number susceptibility at finite chemical potential and zero temperature. In this approach the quark-number susceptibility is totally determined by G[μ]（p） （the dressed quark propagator at finite chemical potential μ）. By applying the general result in our previous study [Phys. Rev. C 71 （2005） 015205, 034901, 73 （2006） 016004 ] G[μ]（p） is calculated from the model quark propagator proposed by Pagels and Stokar [Phys. Rev. D 20 （1979） 2947]. The full analytic expression of the quark-number susceptibility at finite μ and zero T is obtained.

Calculation of Particle-Number Susceptibility of QED3 at Finite Temperature

Based on the external field approach and the differential form of Ward identity, we derive a more compact formula for the particle-number susceptibility in QED3 at finite temperature. Using the zero frequency approximation the numerical value of the particle-number susceptibility is calculated in the Dyson-Schwinger approach for the case that the number of fermion flavours equals one and two, respectively. An enhanced fluctuation of the particlenumber density is observed across the transition temperature, which should be an essential characteristic of chiral phase transition in QED3.

Radial Excitations in the Global Colour Soliton Model

With the Munczek-Nemirovsky model of the effective gluon propagator in the global colour model, we study the radially excited solitons in which one quark is excited and the other two are at the ground state. The obtained masses of the two radial excitations are comparable with the experimental data.

SOME USEFUL FORMULAE IN SU(N) ALGEBRA

Some useful relations in SU(N) algebra are given in this paper. These relations may be useful in deriving the many-body interaction in QCD.

Manifestation of Color Confinement in the YY Model for Atomic Nuclei

In this paper, a manifestation of the well-known color confinement from the QCD (quantum chromodynamics) in the newly developed YY model for the atomic nucleus is presented. There is a wonderful correspondence between the structural requirements from the YY model and some elementary properties of the color dynamics from QCD. The open questions in the YY model, namely the holding forces for triple nodes and for pairing space links, are exactly covered by the three-color compensation or by the paired color anti-color balance. We will see what colors and anti-colors do mean in the YY model, how up quarks and down quarks get assigned a color or anti-color. We will discover some relationships between gluon-based interactions as described in the standard model and pairing space links in the YY model.

Light Meson Mass Spectra with Massive Quarks

We investigate light meson mass spectra with massive u, d, and s quarks and with a spin effect under a bound system in 3 + 1 dimensional QCD by using the first order perturbation correction. In the process of determining charged kaon and neutral kaonmasses, we obtain masses of u, d, and s quarks that are slightly smaller than the currently accepted values. Using these masses, we obtain light meson mass spectra that includes mass splitting of charged and neutral kaons and ρ mesons. The most interesting of our results is that the pion mass remains unchanged even though u, d, and s quarks become massive.

Investigation of proton structure function F_(2)^(p)at HERA in light of an analytical solution to the Balitsky–Kovchegov equation

In this paper,the proton structure function F_(2)^(p)(x,Q^(2))at small-x is investigated using an analytical solution to the Balitsky–Kovchegov(BK)equation.In the context of the color dipole description of deep inelastic scattering(DIS),the structure function F_(2)^(p)(x,Q^(2))is computed by applying the analytical expression for the scattering amplitude N(k,Y)derived from the BK solution.At transverse momentum k and total rapidity Y,the scattering amplitude N(k,Y)represents the propagation of the quark-antiquark dipole in the color dipole description of DIS.Using the BK solution we extracted the integrated gluon density xg(x,Q^(2))and then compared our theoretical estimation with the LHAPDF global data fits,NNPDF3.1sx and CT18.Finally,we have investigated the behavior of F_(2)^(p)(x,Q^(2))in the kinematic region of 10^(-5)≤x≤10^(-2)and 2.5 GeV^(2)≤Q^(2)≤60 GeV^(2).Our predicted results for F_(2)^(p)(x,Q^(2))within the specified kinematic region are in good agreement with the recent high-precision data for F_(2)^(p)(x,Q^(2))from HERA(H1 Collaboration)and the LHAPDF global parametrization group NNPDF3.1sx.

Form factor for Dalitz decays from J/ψto light pseudoscalars

We calculate the form factor M(q^(2))for the Dalitz decay J/ψ→γ*(q^(2))η(N_(f)=1)with η(N_(f))being the SU(N_(f))flavor singlet pseudoscalar meson.The difference among the partial widths Г(J/ψ→γη(N_(f)))at different N_(f) can be attributed in part to the N_(f) and quark mass dependences induced by the U_(A)(1)anomaly dominance.M(q^(2))in both N_(f)=1,2 is well described by the single pole model M(q^(2))=M(0)/(1-q^(2)/Λ^(2)).Combined with the known experimental results of the Dalitz decays J/ψ-Pe^(+)e^(−),the pseudoscalar mass mp dependence of the pole parameter A is approximated byΛ(m^(2)_(p))=Λ_(1)(1-m^(2)_(p)/Λ_(2))withΛ_(1)=2.65(5)GeV andΛ_(2)=2.90(35)GeV.These results provide inputs for future theoretical and experimental studies on the Dalitz decays J/ψ→Pe^(+)e^(−).

Exploring hidden-charm and hidden-strange hexaquark states from lattice QCD

Based on five different ensembles of newly generated(2+1)-flavor configurations with pion mass of approximately mπ■(140-310)MeV,we present a lattice analysis of hidden-charm and hidden-strange hexaquarks with the quark content■.The correlation matrices of two types of operators with JPC=0++,0-+,1++and 1--are simulated to extract the masses of the hexaquark candidates,which are subsequently extrapolated to the physical pion mass and continuum limit.The results indicate that ground state masses are below the■threshold and provide a characteristic signal for the experimental discovery of hexaquark candidates,which may enrich the versatile structure of multiquarks;moreover,it is an indispensable step to decipher the nonperturbative nature of the fundamental interactions of quarks and gluons.

Supermassive black holes triggered by QCD axion bubbles

Supermassive black holes(SMBHs)are ubiquitous in the center of galaxies,although the origin of their massive seeds is still unknown.In this paper,we investigate the formation of SMBHs from the quantum chromodynamics(QCD)axion bubbles.In this case,primordial black holes(PBHs)are considered as the seeds of SMBHs,which are generated from the QCD axion bubbles due to an explicit Peccei–Quinn(PQ)symmetry breaking after inflation.The QCD axion bubbles are formed when the QCD axion starts to oscillate during the QCD phase transition.We consider a general case in which the axion bubbles are formed with the bubble effective angle θ_(eff)∈(0,π],leading to the minimum PBH mass∼■(10^(4)−10^(7))M⊙for the axion decay constant f_(a)∼■(10^(16))GeV.The PBHs at this mass region may account for the seeds of SMBHs.