Observation of intra-group and extra-group copulation and reproductive characters in free ranging groups of western black crested gibbon(Nomascus concolor jingdongensis)

Black crested gibbons(Nomascus concolor)are 1 of only 3 gibbon species that have been observed in long-term polygynous groups,but their mating behavior and reproductive characters have never been reported.Based on population monitoring over 7 years and direct observation for 26 months of the study groups in Wuliang Mountain,central Yunnan,we describe for the first time the copulation behavior and breeding pattern of free-ranging western black crested gibbons.The gestation period of black crested gibbons is estimated to be between 6 and 7 months.The average breeding interval is 3.5 years,with infant independence at approximately 2.5 years.We observed 2 intra-group copulations and 5 extra-group copulations.Copulations were initiated when a female gave a‘solicitation’gesture.When a male made any mating attempt,the female might refuse it.These results demonstrate direct female mate choice.Both male and female gibbons dispersed from their natal groups and sometimes replaced paired adults in other groups.We observed no evidence of infanticide during inter-group conflicts or after replacement of adults.Together with extra-group copulations,these phenomena indicate a flexible social organization and complex mating system.We also observed a male-biased sex ratio among offspring.More genetic work is necessary to describe the effects of inter-group copulation and the genetic diversity of this population.

Observation on Double Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development in Autotetraploid Polyembryonic Rice

The process of double fertilization and the characters of embryo and endosperm development in an autotetraploid polyembryonic mutant rice IR36-Shuang were studied with a laser scanning confocal microscopy. Some abnormalities including degenerated ovary, abortive embryo sac, single fertilization, double-ovule and double-embryo and so on. were found dudng double fertilization and embryo development in IR36-Shuang. The rate of the abnormalities was 46.67% in IR36-Shuang, significantly higher than that in the control, an autotetraploid rice line IR36-4X （33.00%）. Cytological and embryonic evidences were provided for seed setting decline and the initiation of additional embryo in IR36-Shuang.

Reinforcement＇s incidental effects on reproductive isolation between conspecifics

Reinforcement--the process whereby maladaptive hybridization leads to the strengthening of prezygotic isolation between species--has a long history in the study of speciation. Because reinforcement affects traits involved in mate choice and fertility, it can have indirect effects on reproductive isolation between populations within species. Here we review examples of these ＂cascading effects of reinforcement＂ （CER） and discuss different mechanisms through which they can arise. We discuss three factors that are predicted to influence the potential occurrence of CER： rates of gene flow among populations, the strength of selection acting on the traits involved in reinforcement, and the genetic basis of those traits. We suggest that CER is likely if （1） the rate of gene flow between conspecific populations is low; （2） divergent selection acts on phenotypes involved in reinforcement between sympatric and allopatric populations; and （3） the genetic response to reinforcement differs among conspecific populations subject to parallel reinforcing selection. Future work continuing to address gene flow, selection, and the genetic basis of the traits involved in the reinforcement will help develop a better understanding of reinforcement as a process driving the production of species diversity, both directly and incidentally.

s cascade reinforcement likely when sympatric tnd allopatric populations exchange migrants？

When partially reproductively isolated species come back into secondary contact, these taxa may diverge in mating preferences and sexual cues to avoid maladaptive hybridization, a process known as reinforcement. This phenomenon often leads to reproductive character displacement （RCD） between sympatric and allopatric populations of reinforcing species that differ in their exposure to hybridization. Recent discussions have reinvigorated the idea that RCD may give rise to additional speciation between conspecific sympatric and allopatric populations, dubbing the concept ＂cascade reinforcement.＂ Despite some empirical studies supporting cascade reinforcement, we still know very little about the conditions for its evolution. In the present article, we address this question by developing an individual-based population genetic model that explicitly simulates cascade reinforcement when one of the hybridizing species is split into sympatric and allopatric populations. Our results show that when sympatric and allopatric populations reside in the same environment and only differ in their exposure to maladaptive hybridization, migration between them generally inhibits the evolution of cascade by spreading the reinforcement alleles from sympatry into allopatry and erasing RCD. Under these conditions, cascade reinforcement only evolved when migration rate between sympatric and allopatric populations was very low. This indicates that stabilizing sexual selection in allopatry is generally ineffective in preventing the spread of reinforcement alleles. Only when sympatric and allopatric populations experienced divergent ecological selection did cascade reinforcement evolve in the presence of substantial migration. These predictions clarify the conditions for cascade reinforcement and facilitate our understanding of existing cases in nature.

Heterospecific interactions and the proliferation of sexually dimorphic traits

Sexual selection is expected to promote speciation by fostering the evolution of sexual traits that minimize reproductive interactions among existing or incipient species. In species that compete for access to, or attention of, females, sexual selec- tion fosters more elaborate traits in males compared to females. If these traits also minimize reproductive interactions with het- erospecifics, then species with enhanced risk of interactions between species might display greater numbers of these sexually di- morphic characters. We tested this prediction in eight families of North American birds. In particular, we evaluated whether the number of sexually dimorphic traits was positively associated with species richness at a given site or with degree of sympatry with congeners. We found no strong evidence of enhanced sexual dimorphism with increasing confamilial species richness at a given site. We also found no overall relationship between the number of sexually dimorphic traits and overlap with congeners across these eight families. However, we found patterns consistent with our prediction within Anatidae （ducks, geese and swans） and, to a lesser degree, Parulidae （New World warblers）. Our results suggest that sexually selected plumage traits in these groups potentially play a role in reproductive isolation [Current Zoology 58 （3）： 453--462, 2012].