Necroptosis plays a crucial role in the exacerbation of retinal injury after blunt ocular trauma

Retinal injury after blunt ocular trauma may directly affect prognosis and lead to vision loss.To investigate the pathological changes and molecular mechanisms involved in retinal injury after blunt ocular trauma,we established a weight drop injury model of blunt ocular trauma in male Beagle dogs.Hematoxylin-eosin staining,immunofluorescence staining,western blotting,and TUNEL assays were performed to investigate retinal injury within 14 days after blunt ocular trauma.Compared with the control group,the thicknesses of the inner and outer nuclear layers,as well as the number of retinal ganglion cells,gradually decreased within 14 days after injury.The number of bipolar cells in the inner nuclear layer began to decrease 1 day after injury,while the numbers of cholinergic and amacrine cells in the inner nuclear layer did not decrease until 7 days after injury.Moreover,retinal cell necroptosis increased with time after injury;it progressed from the ganglion cell layer to the outer nuclear layer.Visual electrophysiological findings indicated that visual impairment began on the first day after injury and worsened over time.Additionally,blunt ocular trauma induced nerve regeneration and Müller glial hyperplasia;it also resulted in the recruitment of microglia to the retina and polarization of those microglia to the M1 phenotype.These findings suggest that necroptosis plays an important role in exacerbating retinal injury after blunt ocular trauma via gliosis and neuroinflammation.Such a role has important implications for the development of therapeutic strategies.

Neurochemical plasticity of Müller cells after retinal injury: overexpression of GAT-3 may potentiate excitotoxicity

The retina is a multilayered tissue that develops following a central-to-peripheral gradient. Its structure derives from multipotent precursors, as shown through clonal analysis of retinal cell lineage. These progenitors generate diverse cell types, controlled by complex influences of intrinsic and extrinsic factors （Hatakevama and Kagevama, 2004）.

Retinal injury following intravitreal injection of a dexamethasone implant in a vitrectomized eye

Lee SM, Jung JW, Park SW, Lee JE, Byon IS. Retinal injury following intravitreal injection of a dexamethasone implant in a vitrectomized eye. Int J Ophthalmo12017; 10（6）： 1019-1020

N-acetylserotonin alleviates retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury via HMGB1/RAGE/NF-κB pathway in rats

AIM:To observe the effects of N-acetylserotonin(NAS)administration on retinal ischemia-reperfusion(RIR)injury in rats and explore the underlying mechanisms involving the high mobility group box 1(HMGB1)/receptor for advanced glycation end-products(RAGE)/nuclear factor-kappa B(NF-κB)signaling pathway.METHODS:A rat model of RIR was developed by increasing the pressure of the anterior chamber of the eye.Eighty male Sprague Dawley were randomly divided into five groups:sham group(n=8),RIR group(n=28),RIR+NAS group(n=28),RIR+FPS-ZM1 group(n=8)and RIR+NAS+FPS-ZM1 group(n=8).The therapeutic effects of NAS were examined by hematoxylin-eosin(H&E)staining,and retinal ganglion cells(RGCs)counting.The expression of interleukin 1 beta(IL-1β),HMGB1,RAGE,and nod-like receptor 3(NLRP3)proteins and the phosphorylation of nuclear factorkappa B(p-NF-κB)were analyzed by immunohistochemistry staining and Western blot analysis.The expression of HMGB1 protein was also detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA).RESULTS:H&E staining results showed that NAS significantly reduced retinal edema and increased the number of RGCs in RIR rats.With NAS therapy,the HMGB1 and RAGE expression decreased significantly,and the activation of the NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway was antagonized along with the inhibition of p-NF-κB and NLRP3 protein expression.Additionally,NAS exhibited an anti-inflammatory effect by reducing IL-1βexpression.The inhibitory of RAGE binding to HMGB1 by RAGE inhibitor FPS-ZM1 led to a significant decrease of p-NF-κB and NLRP3 expression,so as to the IL-1βexpression and retinal edema,accompanied by an increase of RGCs in RIR rats.CONCLUSION:NAS may exhibit a neuroprotective effect against RIR via the HMGB1/RAGE/NF-κB signaling pathway,which may be a useful therapeutic target for retinal disease.

Network pharmacology investigation of the mechanism underlying the therapeutic action of Shikang granules in retinal ischemia-reperfusion injuries

Background:Retinal ischemia/reperfusion(I/R)injury often results in vision loss,and effective clinical management options are currently lacking.Shikang granules(SKG)are traditional Chinese medicine-based preparations commonly used in clinical practice for treating optic atrophy.Methods:Despite decades of clinical use,the precise mechanism of action(MoA)of SKG remains elusive.Here,we employ a network pharmacological approach to elucidate its MoA by identifying active ingredients and relevant targets using the Traditional Chinese Medicine System Pharmacology Database and Analytical Platform.Targets associated with retinal I/R injury were sourced from GeneCards,Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man,and DisGeNET.Venny software facilitated the identification of intersecting targets,which were then subjected to gene ontology functional analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis.To validate the protective effect and explore the MoA of SKG in retinal I/R injuries,we conducted experiments using rat models.Results:Our animal experiments demonstrated that SKG mitigated apoptosis following retinal I/R injury by upregulating the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and downregulating the expression of BAX,Caspase-9,Caspase-3,PARP,and cytochrome C.Additionally,SKG was found to increase the expression of PI3K and AKT.Conclusions:SKG may exert its protective effects by inhibiting apoptosis through modulation of pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic protein expression,as well as activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress is involved in retinal injury induced by repeated transient spikes of intraocular pressure

Clinically,a large proportion of glaucoma patients undergo repeated intraocular pressure(IOP)spike(Spike IOP)attacks during their sleep,which may facilitate retinopathy.In this study,we established a mouse model of repeated transient Spike IOP to investigate the direct damage to the retina following Spike IOP attacks,and elucidated the underlying molecular mechanism.We analyzed the changes in the number of retinal ganglion cells(RGCs)via immunofluorescence.Thereafter,we detected retinal cell apoptosis via terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate(d UTP)nick-end labeling(TUNEL)staining,and performed RNA sequencing(RNA-seq)to reveal the underlying molecular mechanism.Finally,we validated the expression of key molecules in the endoplasmic reticulum(ER)stress pathway using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction(q RT-PCR)and western blot analysis.Results revealed a time-dependent RGC loss in Spike IOP,evidenced by a reduction in the number of Brn3 a-positive RGCs in experimental eyes following a 7-d continuous treatment with Spike IOP.In addition,TUNEL staining indicated that apoptosis of retinal cells started in the outer nuclear layer(ONL),and then spread to the ganglion cell layer(GCL)with time.RNA-seq analysis revealed that ER stress might be involved in Spike IOP-induced retinal injury.This result was corroborated by western blot,which revealed upregulation of ER stress-related proteins including binding immunoglobulin protein/glucose-regulated protein 78(Bi P/GRP78),phosphorylated inositolrequiring enzyme 1(p-IRE1),unspliced X-box-binding protein 1(XBP1-u),spliced X-box-binding protein 1(XBP1-s),phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase(p-JNK),C/EBP-homologous protein(CHOP),and B-cell lymphoma 2(Bcl-2)-associated X protein(Bax).These findings indicate that repeated IOP transients are detrimental to the retina,while ER stress plays an important role in retinal cell apoptosis in this situation.Notably,repeated Spike IOP among glaucoma patients is a crucial factor for progressive retinopathy.

Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment following electrical shock injury

Dear Editor,We present a case of 'Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment following electrical shock injury' for evaluation for publication in your journal. To our knowledge,this is the first case of retinal tears and retinal detachment caused by an electrical shock reported in the literature. That

Light-emitting-diode induced retinal damage and its wavelength dependency in vivo

AIM： To examine light-emitting-diode（LED）-induced retinal neuronal cell damage and its wavelength-driven pathogenic mechanisms.METHODS： Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to blue LEDs（460 nm）,green LEDs（530 nm）,and red LEDs（620 nm）.Electroretinography（ERG）,Hematoxylin and eosin（H＆E） staining,transmission electron microscopy（TEM）,terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase d UTP nick end labeling（TUNEL）,and immunohistochemical（IHC） staining,Western blotting（WB） and the detection of superoxide anion（O2^-·）,hydrogen peroxide（H2O2）,total iron,and ferric（Fe^3＋） levels were applied.RESULTS： ERG results showed the blue LED group induced more functional damage than that of green or red LED groups.H＆E staining,TUNEL,IHC,and TEM revealed apoptosis and necrosis of photoreceptors and RPE,which indicated blue LED also induced more photochemical injury.Free radical production and iron-related molecular marker expressions demonstrated that oxidative stress and ironoverload were associated with retinal injury.WB assays correspondingly showed that defense gene expression was up-regulated after the LED light exposure with a wavelength dependency.CONCLUSION： The study results indicate that LED bluelight exposure poses a great risk of retinal injury in awake,task-oriented rod-dominant animals.The wavelengthdependent effect should be considered carefully when switching to LED lighting applications.

Role of endoplasmic reticulum stress in the loss of retinal ganglion cells in diabetic retinopathy

Endoplasmic reticulum stress is closely involved in the early stage of diabetic retinopathy. In the present study, a streptozotocin-induced diabetic animal model was given an intraperitoneal injection of tauroursodeoxycholic acid. Results from immunofluorescent co-localization experiments showed that both caspase-12 protein and c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 phosphorylation levels significantly in- creased, which was associated with retinal ganglion cell death in diabetic retinas. The C/ERB ho- mologous protein pathway directly contributed to glial reactivity, and was subsequently responsible for neuronal loss and vascular abnormalities in diabetic retinopathy. Our experimental findings in- dicate that endoplasmic reticulum stress plays an important role in diabetes-induced retinal neu- ronal loss and vascular abnormalities, and that inhibiting the activation of the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway provides effective protection against diabetic retinopathy.

The novel chalcone analog L2H17 protects retinal ganglion cells from oxidative stress-induced apoptosis

Chalcone is a plant metabolite widely found in fruits,vegetables,spices and tea,and has anti-tumor,anti-inflammation,immunomodulation,antibacterial and anti-oxidation activities,as well as many other pharmacological and biological effects.Our team has shown that its analogs have antioxidant activity,and oxidative stress is a pathological hallmark of retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury that can lead to retinal damage and visual loss.This investigation aims to identify a chalcone that protects retinal ganglion cells in vitro from the effects of oxidative stress and examine its mechanism.Rat retinal ganglion cell-5 cells were pretreated with chalcones and then exposed to tert-butyl hydroperoxide that causes oxidative damage.Controls received dimethyl sulfoxide only or tert-butyl hydroperoxide in dimethyl sulfoxide.Only（E）-3,4-dihydroxy-2′-methylether ketone（L2 H17）,of the five chalcone analogs,markedly increased the survival rate of oxidatively injured RGC-5 cells.Thus,subsequent experiments only analyzed the results of the L2 H17 intervention.Cell viability and apoptosis were measured.Intracellular superoxide dismutase and reactive oxygen species levels were used to assess induced oxidative stress.The mechanism of action by L2 H17 was explored by measuring the ER stress/UPR pathway and the expression and localization of Nrf2.All results demonstrated that L2 H17 could reduce the apoptosis of oxidatively injured cells,inhibit caspase-3 activity,increase Bcl-2 expression,decrease Bad expression,increase the activity of superoxide dismutase,inhibit the production of reactive oxygen species,increase Nrf2 immunoreactivity,and reduce the activating transcription factor 4,phospho-eukaryotic initiation factor 2 and CHOP expression.L2 H17 protects retinal ganglion cells induced by oxidative stress by regulating Nrf2,which indicates that it has the potential to become a drug for retinal ischemia/reperfusion.

Down-regulation of protein kinase C alpha/ezrin signals in light-induced phagocytic crisis of retinal pigment epithelium cells

AIM： To investigate the roles of PKC-α/ezrin signals in phagocytosis crisis of retinal pigment epithelium（RPE） cells in light damage model. METHODS： Light induced mice RPE injury model was established by continuously irradiating cool white light at different exposure time（0, 4, 8h light intensity： 4.18×10^-6 J/cm^2）. In vitro, human ARPE-19 cells treated with the doses and intensity（1.57×10^-6 J/cm^2） of laser irradiation. Histology analysis was evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin（HE） staining. In vivo RPE phagocytosis was quantified by measuring the accumulation of photoreceptor outer segments in the sub-retinal space. In vitro RPE phagocytosis was assessed by calculating the relative fluorescence intensity of FITC-labeled microspheres in ARPE-19 cells. To further investigate the molecular mechanism, the activation of PKC-α/ezrin signal was evaluated by Western blot in vivo and in vitro.RESULTS： HE staining revealed that the thickness of outer nuclear layer decreased significantly after 4 and 8h light exposure. By immunostaining with rhodopsin, a significant greater accumulation of photoreceptor outer segment was noticed after light injury. In vitro, light injuredRPE cells had less phagocytic activity in a dose dependent manner than that of the normal control（P〈0.01）. Western blot suggested the activation of PKC-α/ezrin signaling was down-regulated in a dose-dependent manner after light exposure. CONCLUSION： Our data suggest that light induced phagocytic crisis of RPE cells may result from the downregulation of PKC-α/ezrin signaling.

The promise of stem cell-based therapeutics in ophthalmology

The promising role of cellular therapies in the preservation and restoration of visual function has prompted intensive efforts to characterize embryonic, adult, and induced pluripotent stem cells for regenerative purposes. Three main approaches to the use of stem cells have been described： sustained drug delivery, immunomodulation, and differentiation into various ocular structures. Studies of the differentiation capacity of all three types of stem cells into epithelial, neural, glial and vascular phenotypes have reached proof-of-concept in culture, but the correction of vision is still in the early developmental stages, and the requirements for effective in vivo implementation are still unclear. We present an overview of some of the preclinical findings on stem-cell rescue and regeneration of the cornea and retina in acute injury and degenerative disorders.

Neuroprotective effect of recombinant human erythropoietin on optic nerve injury in rats

Background Optic nerve injury, caused by retinal and optic nerve diseases, can eventually result in vision loss. To date, few effective treatments have been discovered to restore visual function. Previous studies showed that recombinant human erythropoietin （rhEPO） has a neuroprotective effect on the central nervous system, particularly in nerve injury. In this study, we investigated the effects of rhEPO on axonal regeneration and functional restoration following optic nerve injury. This was done by measuring the expression of growth associated protein 43 （GAP-43）, a marker for neuronal regeneration, on the retina and flash-visual evoked potential （F-VEP）. Methods Adult Wistar rats were randomly assigned to rhEPO and control （saline） groups. Optic nerve crush injury models were established and rhEPO or saline were immediately injected into the vitreous cavity. The expression of GAP-43 was detected by immunohistochemistry and the F-VEP was measured pre-injury, immediately after injury, 1 week and 2 weeks post-injury. Results No detectable staining for GAP-43 was observed in normal retina. In the control group, the level of GAP-43 expression was higher at 1 week post-injury, but decreased at 2 weeks. In the rhEPO group, the level of GAP-43 expression was notably higher at both 1 week and 2 weeks. At each time point post-injury, the expression of GAP-43 in rhEPO group was significantly higher than the control group （P 〈0.05）. Obvious changes in F-VEP examination were detected immediately after optic nerve injury, including significantly prolonged latency and decreased amplitude of the P1 wave. In the control group, the changes were still obvious at 1 week. The latency was decreased and the amplitude had slightly recovered to 28.23% of the normal value at 2 weeks. In rhEPO group, there was significantly more recovery than the control group at 1 week and 2 weeks post-injury （P 〈0.05）. The latency most close to the normal level and the amplitude had recovered to 65.51% of the normal value at 2 weeks. Conclusions rhEPO can prolong the expression of GAP-43 and increase its intensity after optic nerve injury, thereby promoting neural repair and axonal regeneration. Under the protection of rhEPO, the conduction velocity of the optic nerve recovered significantly. Therefore, rhEPO has neuroprotective effects on the optic nerve and promotes functional restoration of the optic nerve. Chin Med J 2009;122（17）：2008-2012