Field Measurements of Influence of Sand Transport Rate on Structure of Wind-sand Flow over Coastal Transverse Ridge

The structure of wind-sand flow under different total sand transport rates was measured with field vertical anemometer and sand trap on the crest of typical coastal transverse ridge in Changli Gold Coast of Hebei Province, which is one of the most typical coastal aeolian distribution regions in China and famous for the tall and typical coastal transverse ridges. The measurement results show that, on the conditions of approximate wind velocities and same surface materials and environments, some changes happen to the structure of wind-sand flow with the increase of total sand transport rate on the crest of coastal transverse ridge. First, the sand transport rates of layers at different heights in the wind-sand flow increase, with the maximum increase at the height layer of 4-8cm. Second, the ratios of sand trans-port rates of layers at different heights to total sand transport rate decrease at the low height layer (0-4cm), but increase at the high height layer (4-60cm). Third, the distribution of the sand transport rate in the wind-sand flow can be expressed by an exponential function at the height layer of 0-40cm, but it changes from power function model to ex-ponential function model in the whole height layer (0-60cm) and changes into polynomial function model at the height layer of 40-60cm with the increase of total sand transport rate. Those changes have a close relationship with the limit of sand grain size of wind flow transporting and composition of sand grain size in the wind-sand flow.

Influence of Golmud-Lhasa Section of Qinghai-Tibet Railway on Blown Sand Transport

The Qinghai-Tibet Railway(QTR) passes through 281 km of sandy land, 11.07 km of which causes serious sand damage to the railway and thus, the control of blown sand is important for the safe operation of the railway. Construction of the railway and sand prevention system greatly changed the blown sand transport of the primary surface. Effective and feasible sand-control measures include stone checkerboard barriers(SCBs), sand fences(SFs), and gravel coverings. This study simulated the embankments, SCBs and SFs of the QTR in a wind tunnel, and analyzed their respective wind profile, sand deposition, and sand-blocking rate(SBR) in conjunction with field data, aiming at studying the influence of Golmud-Lhasa section of the QTR and sand prevention system on blown sand transport. The results of wind tunnel experiments showed that wind speed increased by 67.7%–77.3% at the upwind shoulder of the embankment and decreased by 50.0%–83.3% at upwind foot of embankment. Wind speed decreased by 50.0%–100.0% after passing through the first SF, and 72.2%–100.0% after the first row of stones within the first SCB grid. In the experiment of sand deposition, the higher the wind speed, the lower the SBR of SCB and SF. From field investigation, the amount of sand blocked by the four SFs decreased exponentially and its SBR was about 50.0%. By contrast, SCB could only block lower amounts of sand, but had a higher SBR(96.7%) than SF. Although, results show that SFs and SCBs along the Golmud-Lhasa section of the QTR provide an obvious sand blocking effect, they lead to the deposition of a large amount of sand, which forms artificial dunes and becomes a new source of sand damage.

Estimation of Sand Transportation Rate for Fixed and Semi-Fixed Dunes Using Meteorological Wind Data

Taibus County, Inner Mongolia, China, lies in a farming-pastoral ecotone, where severe wind erosion and various aeolian sand hazards are prevalent and fixed and semi-fixed sand dunes occur frequently. This study was conducted to investigate the relationships between sand transportation rate and wind speed for the fixed and semi-fixed sand dunes based on field measurements. The annual quantity of soil erosion by wind was estimated using meteorological wind data. The results indicated that the sand transportation rate in Taibus County in 2000 was 57.38 kg cm-1 year-1 for the semi-fixed dunes and 4.56 kg cm-1 year-1 for the fixed dunes. The total duration of erosive winds covered 12.5% of the time of the year, and spring posed the highest potential of sand transportation. Wind with low speed (≤ 17 m s-1) and high frequency plays a dominant role in sand transportation, while strong wind (≥ 17 m s-1) with low frequency significantly enhanced the sand transportation. Erosive wind speed, directions, and frequency were three crucial dynamic factors influencing sand hazards in the farming-pastoral ecotone. The dominant factors intensifying sand and dust storms in Taibus County might be related to the favorable wind condition in combination with the durable drought, which led to land desertification and vegetation degradation.

Effects of different types of guardrails on sand transportation of desert highway pavement

Guardrail,an important highway traffic safety facility,is mainly used to prevent vehicles from accidentally driving off the road and to ensure driving safety.Desert highway guardrails hinder the movement of wind-blown sand,resulting in the decline of sand transportation by the pavement and the deposition of sand gains on the pavement,and endangering traffic safety.To reveal the influence of guardrails on sand transportation of desert highway pavement,we tested the flow field and sand transport volume distribution around the concrete,W-beam,and cable guardrails under different wind velocities through wind tunnel simulation.Wind velocity attenuation coefficients,sand transportation quantity,and sand transportation efficiency are used to measure sand transportation of highway pavement.The results show that the sand transportation of highway pavement was closely related to the zoning characteristics of flow field and variation of wind velocity around the guardrails.The flow field of the concrete guardrail was divided into deceleration,acceleration,and vortex zones.The interaction between the W-beam guardrail and wind-blown sand was similar to that of lower wind deflector.Behind and under the plates,there were the vortex zone and acceleration zone,respectively.The acceleration zone was conducive to transporting sand on the pavement.The cable guardrail only caused wind velocity variability within the height range of guardrail,and there was no sand deposition on the highway pavement.When the cable,W-beam,and concrete guardrails were used,the total transportation quantities on the highway pavement were 423.53,415.74,and 136.53 g/min,respectively,and sand transportation efficiencies were 99.31%,91.25%,and 12.84%,respectively.From the perspective of effective sand transportation on the pavement,the cable guardrail should be preferred as a desert highway guardrail,followed by the W-beam guardrail,and the concrete guardrail is unsuitable.The study results provide theoretical basis for the optimal design of desert highway guardrails and the prevention of wind-blown sand disasters on the highway pavement.

Fetch effect on the developmental process of aeolian sand transport in a wind tunnel

As the sand mass flux increases from zero at the leading edge of a saltating surface to the equilibrium mass flux at the critical fetch length,the wind flow is modified and then the relative contribution of aerodynamic and bombardment entrainment is changed.In the end the velocity,trajectory and mass flux profile will vary simultaneously.But how the transportation of different sand size groups varies with fetch distance is still unclear.Wind tunnel experiments were conducted to investigate the fetch effect on mass flux and its distribution with height of the total sand and each size group in transportation.The mass flux was measured at six fetch length locations(0.5,1.2,1.9,2.6,3.4 and 4.1 m)and at three free-stream wind velocities(8.8,12.2 and 14.5 m/s).The results reveal that the total mass flux and the mass flux of each size group with height can be expressed by q=aexp(–bh),where q is the sand mass flux at height h,and a and b are regression coefficients.The coefficient b represents the relative decay rate.Both the relative decay rates of total mass flux and each size group are independent of fetch length after a quick decay over a short fetch.This is much shorter than that of mass flux.The equilibrium of the relative decay rate cannot be regarded as an equilibrium mass flux profile for aeolian sand transport.The mass fluxes of 176.0,209.3 and 148.0μm size groups increase more quickly than that of other size groups,which indicates strong size-selection of grains exists along the fetch length.The maximal size group in mass flux(176.0μm)is smaller than the maximal size group of the bed grains(209.3μm).The relative contribution of each size group to the total mass flux is not monotonically decreasing with grain size due to the lift-off of some small grains being reduced due to the protection by large grains.The results indicate that there are complex interactions among different size groups in the developmental process of aeolian sand transport and more attention should be focused on the fetch effect because it has different influences on the total mass flux,the mass flux profile and its relative decay rate.

Characteristics of wind-sand transportation along railways in the eastern fringe of the Taklimakan Desert and sand control system

This paper focuses on the Korla-Ruoqiang desert railway line,utilizing ERAS(ERA5 is the fifth generation of ECMWF(European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts)atmospheric reanalysis global climate data)wind data to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the wind energy environment along the line in all aspects,reveals the characteristics of wind-sand transport,and puts forward the countermeasures to prevent and control wind-sand disasters.The results of the study indicate that:(1)the wind-sand along the line mainly occurs in the spring and summer seasons,and the dominant sand-moving directions are easterly(ENE,E and NNE)and northeasterly(NE).(2)The average annual sand-moving wind speed ranges from 5.80 m/s to 7.25 m/s,and the annual frequency of sand-moving ranges from 11.99%to 37.26%.(3)The annual sand drift potential(DP)along the line ranges from 69.20 VU to 607.24 VU,with three types of wind energy environments:low,medium and high.The resultant drift potential(RDP)ranges from 45.52 VU to 547.49 VU,and the wind variability index(RDP/DP)is between 0.54 and 0.90.(4)The average sand transport quantity along the line ranges from 2.92 m^(3)/m/a to 9.09 m3/m/a.Based on these results,we optimize the sand blocking,sand fixing and wind erosion prevention measures for different types of wind-sand environments,establish a scientific and efficient wind-sand protection and control system to solve the wind-sand problems and provide a scientific foundation for the prevention and control of wind-sand disasters along the line.

Near-surface sand-dust horizontal flux in Tazhong-the hinterland of the Taklimakan Desert

Tazhong is the hinterland and a sandstorm high-frequency area of the Taklimakan Desert. However, little is known about the detailed time-series of aeolian sand transport in this area. An experiment to study the sand-dust horizontal flux of near-surface was carried out in Tazhong from January to December 2009. By measur- ing the sand-dust horizontal flux throughout sixteen sand-dust weather processes with a 200-cm tall Big Spring Number Eight （BSNE） sampler tower, we quantitatively analyzed the vertical variation of the sand-dust horizontal flux. And the total sand-dust horizontal flux of different time-series that passed through a section of 100 cm in width and 200 cm in height was estimated combining the data of saltation movement continuously recorded by piezo- electric saltation sensors （Sensit）. The results indicated that, in the surface layer ranging from 0-200 cm, the inten- sity of sand-dust horizontal flux decreased with the increase of the height, and the physical quantities obeyed power function well. The total sand-dust horizontal flux of the sixteen sand-dust weather processes that passed through a section of 100 cm in width and 200 cm in height was about 2,144.9 kg, the maximum of one sand-dust weather event was about 396.3 kg, and the annual total sand-dust horizontal flux was about 3,903.2 kg. The high levels of aeolian sand transport occurred during daytime, especially from 13：00 to 16：00 in the afternoon. We try to develop a new method for estimation of the detailed time-series of aeolian sand transport.

The modern change and evolution tendency of sand coast in the eastern area of Liaodong Gulf

In studying sand beach erosion and protection tactics in Liaoning Province, the authors calculated the wavedata of 27 a Period (1963-1991) at Bayuquan Observation Station in Liaodong Gulf. Together with the beach levellingsand some simple marking stakes monitoring and by having the aid of local annals, the paper analysed the present situationsof the coastline and the causes of sand coastal recession and serious consequences, and then discussed the dynamic processof alongshore sand transport. Simultaneously, based on alongshore sand transport model, oneline cut-and-fill theory anddynamical water model(sea level rise), the authors preliminary estimated beach process for the future in the area.Recently, the coastline is being eroded and 2/3 of the sand coast is subjected to erosion, which the recession rate ofthe individual sector exceed 7. 0 m/a. Coastal erosion has threatened villages, roads, factories and tourist resources. Sealevel rises and the decreasing amount of materials by rivers discharged into the sea and the activities of man, made coast line recession rate accelerate, and cause a great loss of land in the area.

Sand flux estimation during a sand-dust storm at Tazhong area of Taklimakan Desert, China

In this paper, the sand transport during a sand-dust storm in the Tazhong area of the central Taklimakan Desert from 11：29 to 23：56 on July 19, 2008 was observed and measured in real time. The sand flux at Tazhong was estimated using sand transport empirical formulas. The critical friction velocity at Tazhong was 0.24 m/s and the functional relation between the wind speed and sediment discharge at the height of 2 m was established. It was also found that the calculated values by Lettau＇s sediment discharge formula were close to those of the instrument measurements. The horizontal sand flux and the vertical sand flux during this sand-dust storm at Tazhong were respectively 258.67×10-4 kg/（m·s） and 40.07×10-7 kg/（m2·s）.

Effects of gravel mulch on aeolian transport:a field wind tunnel simulation

The shape,size and coverage of gravels have significant impacts on aeolian sand transport.This study provided an understanding of aeolian transport over the gravel mulching surfaces at different wind velocities by means of a mobile wind tunnel simulation.The tested gravel coverage increased from 5% to 80%,with a progressive increment of 5%.The gravels used in the experiments have three sizes in diameter.Wind velocities were measured using 10 sand-proof pitot-static probes,and mean velocity fields were obtained and discussed.The results showed that mean velocity fields obtained over different gravel mulches were similar.The analysis of wind speed patterns revealed an inherent link between gravel mulches and mean airflow characteristics on the gravel surfaces.The optimal gravel coverage is considered to be the critical level above or below which aeolian transport characteristics differ strongly.According to the present study,the optimal gravel coverage was found to be around 30% or 40%.Threshold velocity linearly increased with gravel coverage.Sand transport rate first increased with height above the wind tunnel floor（Hf）,reaching a peak at some midpoint,and then decreased.

A wind tunnel investigation on the transverse motion of aeolian sand

A wind tunnel experiment was performed to investigate aeolian grain motions in the transverse direction, which is perpendicular to the incoming flow and parallels the sand bed. The trajectories in the horizontal plane were recorded by high-speed camera. Statistical analysis of 630 trajectories shows that both the motion orientation and the time-averaged speed follow Gaussian distributions. An exclusive method was used to analyze the driving mechanism. It was concluded that the three-dimensional turbulent air flow, rather than the spin of grain or grain-bed collisions, controls the transverse motion.

Test Study on Erosion and Siltation Patterns of Sandy Bottom Before Mound Breakwater Under the Effect of Waves

In this paper, the effect of waves on erosion of the sandy bottom before mound breakwaters is studied. The sandy bottom basically presents two erosion patterns, between which there is a transitional state, under the action of partially standing waves. The two erosion patterns can be determined by dimensionless parameter Us, defined in this paper. The erosion locations, depths and lengths can be estimated by a series of equations presented in the text. Irregular waves are employed in the test besides regular waves, and the effect of the irregular waves can be estimated by the element of equivalent waves, such as T1/3, H1/3.

塔克拉玛干沙漠平坦沙地风沙流结构的空间差异性研究

利用高频率全自动集沙仪,于2015年4月28日至2015年7月30日在塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地平坦流动沙地开展了风沙流的空间观测,分析了该地区平坦沙地风沙流结构的空间差异性.结果表明:(1)4次天气过程4组集沙仪风沙流结构都符合幂函数分布,但是4组集沙仪同一高度的输沙率和输沙量以及总水平输沙量差异较大.4次天气过程中,25cm高度平均输沙量在3.31~5.35g之间,随着高度增加,平均输沙量差异性呈现减小趋势,100cm高度时平均输沙量在0.22~0.49g之间;4次天气过程中,4组集沙仪平均总沙尘水平通量在1.22~233.47kg/m之间.风沙流的不均匀性是造成此现象的主要原因.(2)采样频率对风沙流结构没有影响,5min以后风沙流结构基本稳定.

三峡库区王家桥小流域土壤侵蚀因子初步研究

通过对王家桥小流域土壤、降雨、植被和地形等因子的分析 ,探讨了土壤抗侵蚀性能 ,分析了坡面侵蚀与各影响因子间的关系 ,建立了基于降雨基础上的全流域输沙幂函数回归方程。结果表明 ,本地区土壤因具有较强的渗透性、抗冲、抗蚀和抗剪切破坏的能力 ,而使其保持较小的可侵蚀性 ;坡面侵蚀中的主要影响因素是雨强和径流量(或降雨量 )的大小 ;流域内土壤侵蚀的形式主要表现为暴雨作用下的重力侵蚀 ,在影响土壤侵蚀的诸多因子中降雨是关键性的 ,它的强度和年分布对年侵蚀模数的大小具有决定性作用。同时 ,通过分析各种雨强 (平均雨强、最大雨强、最大 15分钟雨强、最大 30分钟雨强、最大 6 0分钟雨强 )对土壤侵蚀量的影响 ,结果表明 ,虽然最大 6 0分钟雨强具有最优相关性 ,但在多元回归方程中 ,采用最大

沙蓬防风阻沙效能初步研究

选取了延庆县官厅湖畔的沙蓬试验地为研究对象,对沙蓬试验地的粗糙度、防风效能、输沙量、起沙风速及单株沙蓬的阻截沙范围进行的系统的观测和研究。结果表明,沙蓬试验地的粗糙度为6.17 cm,比迎风面空旷沙地高出5.37 cm;其防风效能在30 cm和50 cm高度处较好,分别为24.13%和17.07%,当高度达到200 cm时,已几乎没有防风效能;当风速达到7.1 m/s时,沙蓬试验地仍未见起沙现象;20 m in时段内平均风速为5.8 m/s时,沙蓬试验地的积沙量仅为0.62 g;单株沙蓬的阻截沙范围为1.37 m2。

Interactive effects of wind speed,vegetation coverage and soil moisture in controlling wind erosion in a temperate desert steppe,Inner Mongolia of China

The rapid desertification of grasslands in Inner Mongolia of China poses a significant ecological threaten to northern China. The combined effects of anthropogenic disturbances （e.g., overgrazing） and biophysical processes （e.g., soil erosion） have led to vegetation degradation and the consequent acceleration of regional desertification. Thus, mitigating the accelerated wind erosion, a cause and effect of grassland desertification, is critical for the sustainable management of grasslands. Here, a combination of mobile wind tunnel experiments and wind erosion model was used to explore the effects of different levels of vegetation coverage, soil moisture and wind speed on wind erosion at different positions of a slope inside an enclosed desert steppe in the Xilamuren grassland of Inner Mongolia. The results indicated a significant spatial difference in wind erosion intensities depending on the vegetation coverage, with a strong decreasing trend from the top to the base of the slope. Increasing vegetation coverage resulted in a rapid decrease in wind erosion as explained by a power function correlation. Vegetation coverage was found to be a dominant control on wind erosion by increasing the surface roughness and by lowering the threshold wind velocity for erosion. The critical vegetation coverage required for effectively controlling wind erosion was found to be higher than 60%. Further, the wind erosion rates were negatively correlated with surface soil moisture and the mass flux in aeolian sand transport increased with increasing wind speed. We developed a mathematical model of wind erosion based on the results of an orthogonal array design. The results from the model simulation indicated that the standardized regression coefficients of the main effects of the three factors （vegetation coverage, soil moisture and wind speed） on the mass flux in aeolian sand transport were in the following order： wind speed〉vegetation coverage〉soil moisture. These three factors had different levels of interactive effects on the mass flux in aeolian sand transport. Our results will improve the understanding of the interactive effects of wind speed, vegetation coverage and soil moisture in controlling wind erosion in desert steppes, and will be helpful for the design of desertification control programs in future.

Observation of saltation activity at Tazhong area in Taklimakan Desert,China

A two-year field observation of saltation activity was carried out at Tazhong area, the hinterland area of the Taklimakan Desert with highly frequent dust storms. From 1 September 2008 to 31 August 2010, a piezoelectric saltation sensor （Sensit） was used to continuously collect the data on saltation activity at a level sand surface. Analysis on the data suggests that saltation activity can occur at any time of the year when conditions are favorable; however, the necessary conditions are rarely satisfied in most time. In the daytime of spring or summer, saltation activity can persist even over a continuous one-hour-or-so period. It is found that, from 1 September 2008 to 31 August 2010, saltation activity accounts for more than 3% of the total yearly time, and it tends to peak in spring and summer months with strong winds. During winter months when winds are weak, however, it is often at a minimum. It seems that precipitation does not appear to be significant in reducing saltation activity in arid regions like Tazhong.

Thermodynamic Effects on Particle Movement:Wind Tunnel Simulation Results

Sand/dust storms are some of the main hazards in arid and semi-arid zones. These storms also influence global environmental changes. By field observations, empirical statistics, and numerical simulations, pioneer researchers on these natural events have concluded the existence of a positive relationship between thermodynamic effects and sand/dust storms. Thermodynamic effects induce an unsteady stratified atmosphere to influence the process of these storms. However, studies on the relationship of thermodynamic effects with particles (i.e., sand and dust) are limited. In this article, wind tunnel with heating was used to simulate the quantitative relationship between thermodynamic effects and particle movement on different surfaces. Compared with the cold state, the threshold wind velocity of particles is found to be significantly decrease under the hot state. The largest decrease percentage exceedes 9% on fine and coarse sand surfaces. The wind velocity also has a three-power function in the sand transport rate under the hot state with increased sand transport. Thermodynamic effects are stronger on loose surfaces and fine particles, but weaker on compacted surfaces and coarse particles.

The varying fetch effect of aeolian sand transport above a gobi surface and its implication for gobi development process

The Gobi deserts are important landscapes and major sandstorm source areas in arid northwestern China.Unsaturated sand flow and decreasing sand supply capacity is well known as the basic characteristics of gobi surface,but relatively little attention has been paid to the fetch effect of sand transport which is closely related to sand supply and indicative of wind erosion process in gobi.Using a field experiment,we investigated the spatial and temporal variations on a manually disturbed gobi surface downwind a sand-blocking belt and a sand-fixing belt by measuring the sand transport rate and the height profile of flux density at different fetch lengths during a sequence of wind erosion events.Results showed that the sand supply capacity determined the critical fetch length(Lc)for the sand transport rate so that the fetch effect varied with wind erosion proceeding due to depletion of erodible material.The height profile of flux density above the surface followed two distributions:an exponential decrease with increasing height,which commonly occurred above the newly treated gobi surface during the early wind erosion events;or a Lorentzian distribution with a peak flux at a certain height,which often happened in the later wind erosion events.The varying fetch effect,decreasing sand transport rates,and the nonerodible area expanded downwind are an epitome of the gobi development and expansion process from the perspective of wind erosion.

Sand transport in multiphase flow mixtures in a horizontal pipeline:An experimental investigation

An inherent problem with both oil and natural gas production is the deposition of sand particles in pipeline,which could lead to problems such as excessive pressure drops,equipment failure,pipeline erosion,and production decline.The characterization of sand particles transport and sedimentation in different flow systems such as sandemultiphase mixtures is vital to predict the sand transport velocity and entrainment processes in oil and gas transportation pipelines.However,it seems that no model exists able to accurately characterize the sand transport and deposition in multiphase pipeline.In fact,in the last decade several researchers tried to extend the modeling of liquid-solid flow to gas-liquid-solid flow,but no significant results have been obtained,especially in slug flow condition due to the complexity of the phenomenon.In order to develop and validate a mathematical model properly formulated for the calculation of the sand critical deposition velocity in gas-liquid flow,more and more experimental data are necessary.This paper presents a preliminary experimental study of three phase flows(air-water-sand)inside a horizontal pipe and the application of the sand-liquid models present in literature.Significant observations were made during the experimental study from which several conclusions were drawn.Different sand flow regimes were established by physical observation and data analysis:fully dispersed solid flow,moving dunes and stationary bed.The critical deposition velocities were determined at different sand concentrations.It was concluded that sand transport characteristics and the critical deposition velocity are strongly dependent on the gas-liquid flow regime and on sand concentration.