Statistical Analysis of Thunderstorms on the Eastern Tibetan Plateau Based on Modified Thunderstorm Indices

The Tibetan Plateau, with an average altitude above 4000 m, is the highest and largest plateau in the world. The frequency of thunderstorms in this region is extremely high. Many indices are used in operational forecasting to assess the stability of the atmosphere and predict the probability of severe thunderstorm development. One of the disadvantages of many of these indices is that they are mainly based on observations from plains. However, considering the Plateau＇s high elevation, most convective parameters cannot be applied directly, or their application is ineffective. The pre-convective environment on thunderstorm days in this region is investigated based on sounding data obtained throughout a five-year period（2006–10）.Thunderstorms occur over the Tibetan Plateau under conditions that differ strikingly from those in plains. On this basis,stability indices, such as the Showalter index（including SI and SICCL）, and the K index are improved to better assess the thunderstorm environments on the Plateau. Verification parameters, such as the true-skill statistic（TSS） and Heidke skill score（HSS）, are adopted to evaluate the optimal thresholds and relative forecast skill for each modified index. Lastly, the modified indices are verified with a two-year independent dataset（2011–12）, showing satisfactory results for the modified indices. For determining whether or not a thunderstorm day is likely to occur, we recommend the modified SICCLindex.

Evaluation of summer drought ensemble prediction over the Yellow River basin

Accurately predicting drought a few months in advance is important for drought mitigation and agricultural and water resources management,especially for a river basin like that of the Yellow River in North China.However,summer drought predictability over the Yellow River basin is limited because of the low influence from ENSO and the large interannual variations of the East Asian summer monsoon.To explore the drought predictability from an ensemble prediction perspective,29-year seasonal hindcasts of soil moisture drought,taken directly from several North American multimodel ensemble(NMME)models with different ensemble sizes,were compared with those produced by combining bias-corrected NMME model predictions and variable infiltration capacity(VIC)land surface hydrological model simulations.It was found that the NMME/VIC approach reduced the root-mean-square error from the best NMME raw products by 48%for summer soil moisture drought prediction at the lead-1 season,and increased the correlation significantly.Within the NMME/VIC framework,the multimodel ensemble mean further reduced the error from the best single model by 6%.Compared with the NMME raw forecasts,NMME/VIC had a higher probabilistic drought forecasting skill in terms of a higher Brier skill score and better reliability and resolution of the ensemble.However,the performance of the multimodel grand ensemble was not necessarily better than any single model ensemble,suggesting the need to optimize the ensemble for a more skillful probabilistic drought forecast.

Guidance on the Choice of Threshold for Binary Forecast Modeling

This paper proposes useful guidance on the choice of threshold for binary forecasts. In weather forecast systems, the probabilistic forecast cannot be used directly when estimated too smoothly. In this case, the binary forecast, whether a meteorological event will occur or not, is preferable to the probabilistic forecast. A threshold is needed to generate a binary forecast, and the guidance in this paper encompasses the use of skill scores for the choice of threshold according to the forecast pattern. The forecast pattern consists of distribution modes of estimated probabilities, occurrence rates of observations, and variation modes. This study is performed via Monte-Carlo simulation, with 48 forecast patterns considered. Estimated probabilities are generated by random variate sampling from five distributions separately. Varying the threshold from 0 to 1, binary forecasts are generated by threshold. For the assessment of binary forecast models, a 2×2 contingency table is used and four skill scores （Heidke skill score, hit rate, true skill statistic, and threat score） are compared for each forecast pattern. As a result, guidance on the choice of skill score to find the optimal threshold is proposed.

A CRPS-Based Spatial Technique for the Verification of Ensemble Precipitation Forecasts

Traditional precipitation skill scores are affected by the well-known"double penalty"problem caused by the slight spatial or temporal mismatches between forecasts and observations.The fuzzy(neighborhood)method has been proposed for deterministic simulations and shown some ability to solve this problem.The increasing resolution of ensemble forecasts of precipitation means that they now have similar problems as deterministic forecasts.We developed an ensemble precipitation verification skill score,i.e.,the Spatial Continuous Ranked Probability Score(SCRPS),and used it to extend spatial verification from deterministic into ensemble forecasts.The SCRPS is a spatial technique based on the Continuous Ranked Probability Score(CRPS)and the fuzzy method.A fast binomial random variation generator was used to obtain random indexes based on the climatological mean observed frequency,which were then used in the reference score to calculate the skill score of the SCRPS.The verification results obtained using daily forecast products from the ECMWF ensemble forecasts and quantitative precipitation estimation products from the OPERA datasets during June-August 2018 shows that the spatial score is not affected by the number of ensemble forecast members and that a consistent assessment can be obtained.The score can reflect the performance of ensemble forecasts in modeling precipitation and thus can be widely used.

Seasonal Prediction of Tropical Cyclones and Storms over the Southwestern Indian Ocean Region Using the Generalized Linear Models

Tropical cyclones (TCs) and storms (TSs) are among the devastating events in the world and southwestern Indian Ocean (SWIO) in particular. The seasonal forecasting TCs and TSs for December to March (DJFM) and November to May (NM) over SWIO were conducted. Dynamic parameters including vertical wind shear, mean zonal steering wind and vorticity at 850 mb were derived from NOAA (NCEP-NCAR) reanalysis 1 wind fields. Thermodynamic parameters including monthly and daily mean Sea Surface Temperature (SST), Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) and equatorial Standard Oscillation Index (SOI) were used. Three types of Poison regression models (i.e. dynamic, thermodynamic and combined models) were developed and validated using the Leave One Out Cross Validation (LOOCV). Moreover, 2 × 2 square matrix contingency tables for model verification were used. The results revealed that, the observed and cross validated DJFM and NM TCs and TSs strongly correlated with each other (p ≤ 0.02) for all model types, with correlations (r) ranging from 0.62 - 0.86 for TCs and 0.52 - 0.87 for TSs, indicating great association between these variables. Assessment of the model skill for all model types of DJFM and NM TCs and TSs frequency revealed high skill scores ranging from 38% - 70% for TCs and 26% - 72% for TSs frequency, respectively. Moreover, results indicated that the dynamic and combined models had higher skill scores than the thermodynamic models. The DJFM and NM selected predictors explained the TCs and TSs variability by the range of 0.45 - 0.65 and 0.37 - 0.66, respectively. However, verification analysis revealed that all models were adequate for predicting the seasonal TCs and TSs, with high bias values ranging from 0.85 - 0.94. Conclusively, the study calls for more studies in TCs and TSs frequency and strengths for enhancing the performance of the March to May (MAM) and December to October (OND) seasonal rainfalls in the East African (EA) and Tanzania in particular.

Significant Improvement in Rainfall Forecast over Delhi:Annual and Seasonal Verification

Regional Weather Forecasting Centre(RWFC)New Delhi has the responsibility to issue and disseminate rainfall forecast for Delhi.So it is very important to scientifically verify the rainfall forecast issued by RWFC.In this study rainfall forecast verification of Delhi has been carried out annually and season wise for the period 2011 to 2021.Various statistical parameters such as Percentage Correct(PC),Probability of Detection(POD),Missing Ratio(MR),False Alarm Ratio(FAR),Critical Success Index(CSI),True Skill Statistics(TSS)and Heidke Skill Score(HSS)have been calculated for season wise and annually.A forecast is considered to be improved if PC,POD,CSI,TSS and HSS increase and FAR and MR decrease over a period of time.The author can conclude that annual accuracy of forecast has increased significantly over the period of time from 2011 to 2021,as PC,POD,CSI,TSS and HSS increase and FAR and MR decrease over a period of time.Maximum contribution in the improved forecast has observed in transition season(pre-monsoon season followed by post-monsoon,having rainfall activity mainly in association with thunderstorms),when FAR and MR have decreased drastically.

Assessing Hourly Precipitation Forecast Skill with the Fractions Skill Score

Statistical methods for category（yes/no） forecasts, such as the Threat Score, are typically used in the verification of precipitation forecasts. However, these standard methods are affected by the so-called ＂double-penalty＂ problem caused by slight displacements in either space or time with respect to the observations. Spatial techniques have recently been developed to help solve this problem. The fractions skill score（FSS）, a neighborhood spatial verification method, directly compares the fractional coverage of events in windows surrounding the observations and forecasts.We applied the FSS to hourly precipitation verification by taking hourly forecast products from the GRAPES（Global/Regional Assimilation Prediction System） regional model and quantitative precipitation estimation products from the National Meteorological Information Center of China during July and August 2016, and investigated the difference between these results and those obtained with the traditional category score. We found that the model spin-up period affected the assessment of stability. Systematic errors had an insignificant role in the fraction Brier score and could be ignored. The dispersion of observations followed a diurnal cycle and the standard deviation of the forecast had a similar pattern to the reference maximum of the fraction Brier score. The coefficient of the forecasts and the observations is similar to the FSS; that is, the FSS may be a useful index that can be used to indicate correlation.Compared with the traditional skill score, the FSS has obvious advantages in distinguishing differences in precipitation time series, especially in the assessment of heavy rainfall.

A Convection-Allowing Ensemble Forecast Based on the Breeding Growth Mode and Associated Optimization of Precipitation Forecast

A convection-allowing ensemble forecast experiment on a squall line was conducted based on the breeding growth mode （BGM）. Meanwhile, the probability matched mean （PMM） and neighborhood ensemble probability （NEP） methods were used to optimize the associated precipitation forecast. The ensemble forecast predicted the precipita- tion tendency accurately, which was closer to the observation than in the control forecast. For heavy rainfall, the pre- cipitation center produced by the ensemble forecast was also better. The Fractions Skill Score （FSS） results indicated that the ensemble mean was skillful in light rainfall, while the PMM produced better probability distribution of pre- cipitation for heavy rainfall. Preliminary results demonstrated that convection-allowing ensemble forecast could im- prove precipitation forecast skill through providing valuable probability forecasts. It is necessary to employ new methods, such as the PMM and NEP, to generate precipitation probability forecasts. Nonetheless, the lack of spread and the overprediction of precipitation by the ensemble members are still problems that need to be solved.

PERFORMANCE OF TROPICAL CYCLONE FORECAST IN WESTERN NORTH PACIFIC IN 2015

The operational track and intensity forecast errors of tropical cyclones(TCs) over the western North Pacific in 2015 were evaluated on the basis of RSMC-Tokyo's "best-track" dataset. The results showed that position errors for each official agency were under 80 km, 130 km, 180 km, 260 km and 370 km at 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 hr lead time. Stepped decreases in the values of each quantile were made at every lead times and have been made by global models from 2010 to 2015, especially for long lead time. The results of the Track Forecast Integral Deviation(TFID) show a clearly decreasing trend for most global models, indicating that the TC forecast tracks became increasingly similar to the observations. In 2015, the intensity forecast skill scores for both global and regional models were almost negative. However, the skill of EPSs' intensity forecasting has made significant progress in the past year.