Formulating Dead Sea Mud in Cosmetic Products, Its Effects on Skin, and the Underlying Biological Mechanism: A Review

Research Background: The marketing of cosmetic products derived from Dead Sea (DS) mud has undergone significant evolution, transforming from simple souvenirs into a large-scale cosmetic industry offering a diverse array of products. DS mud is utilized both as pure mud for home spa treatments and as an active ingredient in cosmetic and cosmeceutical formulations. Its global appeal is largely due to its natural, health-oriented image, which aligns with consumer preferences and provides assurance regarding its use in skincare. Research Objectives: This review examines the published data related to the rationale for formulating DS mud in cosmetics, the biological and cosmetic effects of DS mud on the skin, and the speculated bio-mechanisms underlying these effects. Methods: We screened relevant literature on DS mud collected from the shores of the Dead Sea in Jordan and Israel. Publications on mineral muds excavated in different locations around the globe, as well as studies on the biological mechanisms of other DS minerals, were also reviewed as indications and supportive recommendations. Summarizing the vast collected data into a comprehensive review was undertaken to expose readers to the various aspects of DS mud in cosmetics. Results: The primary reason for formulating DS mud in skincare products is its deep cleansing and skin detoxification properties. Consequently, it is often incorporated into rinse-off masks, soaps, and scrubbing products. Additionally, DS mud is used in leave-on products and sheet masks. Cosmeceutical applications of DS mud, recommended for various skin conditions, offer complementary treatments to improve the quality of life for people with skin diseases. The physicochemical and biological effects of DS mud are driven by its rich mineral ion composition, including magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, zinc, and strontium—elements known to improve skin barrier function, enhance hydration, and reduce inflammation. The high salt concentration induces moderate ionic osmotic stress, stimulating cellular growth and hydration pathways. Moreover, DS mud’s anti-microbial properties further contribute to its therapeutic potential. Ongoing innovations in formulation techniques continue to expand the applications of DS mud, including blending it with other active ingredients, developing novel application methods, and refining manufacturing processes to improve product quality and efficacy. Conclusions: DS mud remains a valuable ingredient in modern skincare due to its rich mineral content and therapeutic properties. Ongoing research and technological advancements promise further innovations, reinforcing its status as a natural and effective component in the global cosmetics industry.

Burial fluxes and sources of organic carbon in sediments of the central Yellow Sea mud area over the past 200 years

Long-term changes of composition, sources and burial fluxes of TOC （total organic carbon） in sediments of the central Yellow Sea mud area and their possible affecting factors are discussed in this paper. Firstly, similarity analysis is employed to confirm that the carbon burial features resulted from two collected cores are typical in the central Yellow Sea mud area where YSWC （Yellow Sea Warm Current） is prevalent. On this basis, the burial flux of TOC here was considered to be 235.5-488.4 pmol/（cm^2.a） since the first industrial revolution, accounting for about 70%-90% among burial fluxes of TC （total carbon） in the sediments. Compared TOC/TC ratio in the two cores with that in other marine sediments worldwide, we suggest that the growth of calcareous/non-calcareous organisms and dissolution of IC （inorganic carbon） are important factors controlling the TOC/TC ratio in sediment. Results of two-end mixed model based on fi13C data indicate that marine-derived organic carbon （OCa） is the main part among total burial organic carbon which accounts for a ratio over 85%. Due to the high TOC/TC ratio in the two cores, TC in the sediments also mainly exists as OCa, and the proportion of OCa is about 60%-80%. Away from the shore and relatively high primary production in upper waters are the main reasons that OCa is predominant among all burial OC in sediments of the central Yellow Sea mud area. Burial of OC in this mud area is probably mainly influenced by the human activities. Although the economic development during the late 19th century caused by the first industrial revolution in China did not obviously increase the TOC burial fluxes in the sediments, the rise of industry and agriculture after the founding of new China has clearly increased the TOC burial flux since 1950s. Otherwise, we also realize that among TC burial fluxes, TIC account for about 10%-30% in sediments of the central Yellow Sea mud area, so its burial could not be simply ignored here. Distinct from TOC burial, long-term TIC burial fluxes variations relate with climate changes more closely： the East Asian summer monsoon may influence the strength of the Huanghe River （Yellow River） flood, which could further affect the transport of terrestrial IC from land to the central Yellow Sea as well as the burial of these IC in the sediments.

Geochemical and Grain-Sized Implications for Provenance Variations of the Central Yellow Sea Muddy Area Since the Middle Holocene

Based on high-resolution analysis to a 280-cm long sediment core obtained from the muddy area in the central Yellow Sea, we examined the provenance of muddy sediments and discussed the changing marine sedimentary environment since the middle Holocene. The results indicated that fine-grained sediments in the muddy area were mainly derived from the Huanghe(Yellow River) and Changjiang(Yangtze River) with considerable stepwise variations during the past 6.6 kyr. The Yellow Sea Warm Current was initiated at 6 kyr when the sea level was high together with the enhanced East Asian Winter Monsoon. These in combination established the framework of shelf circulation in the Yellow Sea that began to trap the river-derived fine-grained sediments. From 4.9 kyr to 2.8 kyr, both the Kushiro Current and East Asian Monsoon were significantly weakened, reducing the delivery of Changjiang sediments to the muddy area. As a result, the sediments were mainly originated from the Huanghe. From 2.8 kyr to 1.5 kyr the continuously weakened East Asian Winter Monsoon and enhanced Yellow Sea Warm Current entrapped more fine-grain sediments. Whereas the enhanced East Asian Winter Monsoon and the human caused increase in sediment load of the Huanghe since 1.5 kyr, and direct delivery of Huanghe sediments to the Yellow Sea during 1128–1855 AD might dominated the sedimentation in the study area. The stepwise variations of the sediment provenance and composition of the Central Yellow Sea muddy sediments are of importance to understanding the formation of muddy deposit in the central Yellow Sea and the associated variations of marine environment since the middle Holocene.

Effect of Sulfate-reducing Bacteria on Corrosion Behavior of Mild Steel in Sea Mud

Microbiologically influenced corrosion （MIC） is very severe corrosion for constructions buried under sea mud environment. Therefore it is of great importance to carry out the investigation of the corrosion behavior of marine steel in sea mud. In this paper, the effect of sulfate-reducing bacteria （SRB） on corrosion behavior of mild steel in sea mud was studied by weight loss, dual-compartment cell, electronic probe microanalysis （EPMA）, transmission electron microscopy （TEM） combined with energy dispersive X-ray analysis （EDX） and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy （EIS）. The results showed that corrosion rate and galvanic current were influenced by the metabolic activity of SRB. In the environment of sea mud containing SRB, the original corrosion products, ferric （oxyhydr） oxide, transformed to iron sulfide. With the excess of the dissolved H2S, the composition of the protective layer formed of FeS transformed to FeS2 or other non-stoichiometric polysulphide, which changed the state of the former layer and accelerated the corrosion process.

Application of Wet Waste from Shrimp(Litopenaeus vannamei) with or Without Sea Mud to Feeding Sea Cucumber(Stichopus monotuberculatus)

In the present study, the applicability of the wet waste collected from shrimp(Litopenaeus vannamei) to the culture of sea cucumber(Stichopus monotuberculatus) was determined. The effects of dietary wet shrimp waste on the survival, specific growth rate(SGR), fecal production rate(FPR), ammonia- and nitrite-nitrogen productions of sea cucumber were studied. The total organic matter(TOM) level in the feces of sea cucumber was compared with that in corresponding feeds. Diet C(50% wet shrimp waste and 50% sea mud mash) made sea cucumber grow faster than other diets. Sea cucumber fed with either diet D(25% wet shrimp waste and 75% sea mud mash) or sole sea mud exhibited negative growth. The average lowest total FPR of sea cucumber occurred in diet A(wet shrimp waste), and there was no significant difference in total FPR between diet C and diet E(sea mud mash)(P > 0.05). The average ammonia-nitrogen production of sea cucumber in different diet treatments decreased gradually with the decrease of crude protein content in different diets. The average highest nitrite-nitrogen production occurred in diet E treatment, and there was no significant difference in nitrite-nitrogen production among diet A, diet B(75% wet shrimp waste and 25% sea mud mash) and diet C treatments(P > 0.05). In each diet treatment, the total organic matter(TOM) level in feces decreased to different extent compared with that in corresponding feeds.

Grain size records reveal variability of the East Asian Winter Monsoon since the Middle Holocene in the Central Yellow Sea mud area,China

Three cores （ZY-1, ZY-2 and ZY-3） retrieved from the Central Yellow Sea mud （CYSM） were analyzed in sensitive grain size and AMS J4C dating to reconstruct the history of the East Asian Winter Monsoon （EAWM） since the Middle Holocene in the study area. The results show that these data provide a continuous history of the EAWM over the past 7.2 ka and that the EAWM can be divided into three periods： strong and highly fluctuating during 7.2-4.2 ka BP; moderate and relatively stable during 4.2-1.8 ka BP; and weakened during 1.8-0 ka BP. Compared with the East Asian Summer Monsoon （EASM） recorded in the previous studies, the evolutionary history of the EAWM broadly follows the orbital-derived winter insolation with a similar long-term step-decreased trend as the EASM. At the centennial scale, however, the EAWM intensified events correlate well with the EASM weakened events and the North Atlantic climatic variations （Bond events 0 to 5） within the dating error, most likely forced by the reduction of solar irradiance through changes in the oceanic-atmospheric circulation patterns.

Recovery of yttrium from deep-sea mud

Deep-sea mud rich in rare earth yttrium has received lots of attention from the international community as a new resource for Y. A novel process, which mainly includes acid leaching, solvent extraction, and oxalic acid precipitation-roasting, is proposed for recovery of Y from deep-sea mud. A series of experiments were conducted to inspect the impacts of various factors during the process and the optimum conditions were determined. The results show that the Y of deep-sea mud totally exists in apatite minerals which can be decomposed by hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid solution. The highest leaching efficiency of Y is 94.53% using hydrochloric acid and 84.38% using sulfuric acid under the conditions of H^＋concentration 2.0 mol/L, leaching time 60 min, liquid-solid ratio 4：1 and room temperature 25 ℃（only in case of sulfuric acid, when using hydrochloric acid, the leaching temperature should be 60 ℃）. Because of the much lower leaching temperature, sulfuric acid leaching is preferred. The counter current extraction and stripping tests were simulated by a cascade centrifugal extraction tank device. Using 10 vol% P204,15 vol% TBP and 75 vol% sulfonated kerosene as extractant, 98.79% Y^3＋ and 42.60% Fe^3＋ are extracted from sulfuric acid leaching liquor（adjusted to pH = 2.0） after seven-stage counter current extraction with O/A ratio of 1：1 at room temperature, while other metals ions such as Al^3＋, Ca^2＋, Mg^2＋and Mn^2＋ are almost not extracted. The Y^3＋ in loaded organic can be selectively stripped using 50 g/L sulfuric acid solution and the stripping efficiency reaches 99.86% after seven-stage counter current stripping with O/A ratio of 10：1 at room temperature, while only 2.26% co-extracted Fe^3＋ is stripped. The Y^3＋ of loaded strip liquor can be precipitated by oxalic acid to further separate Y^3＋ and Fe^3＋. The precipitation efficiency of Y^3＋ in loaded strip liquor can be 98.56% while Fe^3＋ is not precipitated under the conditions of oxalic acid solution concentration 200 g/L, quality ratio of oxalic acid to Y of 2, and precipitation time 0.5 h. And the precipitate was roasted at 850 ℃ for 3 h to obtain the oxide of Y in which the purity of Y_2 O_3/REO is 79.02% and the contents of major non-rare earth impurities are less than 0.21%.Over the whole process included acid leaching, solvent extraction, and oxalic acid precipitation-roasting,the yttrium yield is 82.04%.

Environmental record from the mud area on the inner continental shelf of the East China Sea since the mid-Holocene

Paleoclimate record was revealed in Core MZ01 covering the mid-Holocene in age,located in the mud area of the inner continental shelf of the East China Sea. The ancient environment featured low-energy shallow sea shelf deposition formed mainly by coastal currents. The results show that temporal variation in geochemistry corresponds with the climate changes inferred from historical record. Relatively low MgO/Al 2 O 3,CaO/K 2 O and high Al 2 O 3 /Na 2 O,K 2 O/Na 2 O,MnO/CaO values reflected a warm and humid climate in general,and vice versa. Therefore,these chemical indices could be applied to identify the variation of palaeoclimate in eastern China. The authors reconstructed the history of mid-Holocene climatic variation of the inner continental shelf of the East China Sea. From 8 300 a BP to 4 200 a BP,the climate was moderately warm and humid. From 4 200 a BP to 2 000 a BP,the climate turned cool and dry,and the regional climate frequently fluctuated in alternation of cool-dry periods（3 700 a BP,2 850 a BP and 2 400 a BP） and warm-wet periods（3 250 a BP and 2 650 a BP） . After 2 000 a BP,the climate of the study area gradually turned warm again,while the Little Ice Age,a cold event centered at around 250 a BP was indicated by those geochemical indices as mentioned above.

Sedimentary architecture of the Holocene mud deposit off the southern Shandong Peninsula in the Yellow Sea

Newly acquired high-resolution seismic profiles reveal a nearshore and an of fshore mud depocenter of f the southern Shandong Peninsula in the Yellow Sea.The nearshore depocenter is distributed in bands along the south coast of Shandong Peninsula.The of fshore depocenter is part of the distal subaqueous deltaic lobe,which deposited around the southeastern tip of the Shandong Peninsula.Between the two depocenters is a linear depression.The mud deposits directly overlie the postglacial transgressive surface and can be divided into lower and upper units by the Holocene maximum flooding surface.The nearshore and off shore units display different seismic structures.The lower unit of the nearshore deposit exhibits basal onlap,whereas the upper unit is characterized by progradation.The lower and upper units of the off shore deposit display distinct acoustic features.The lower unit has low-angle aggradation with internal reflectors generally dipping seaward and truncated by the Holocene maximum flooding surface,whereas the upper unit is characterized by aggradation and progradation landward rather than seaward.Results of geochemistry analysis of QDZ03 sediments and mineral analysis of WHZK01 sediments suggest that the nearshore deposit and the lower unit of the of fshore deposit are derived from the proximal coastal sediments of the Shandong Peninsula and the Huanghe(Yellow) River sediments.The upper unit of the of fshore deposit is mainly Huanghe River-derived.The lower unit of the mud deposit represents a post-glacial transgressive system tract according to dates of core QDZ03,and the upper unit represents a highstand system tract from middle Holocene to the present.These results will be of great significance to further understanding of the transportation of the Huanghe River sediments into the Yellow Sea and the spatial distribution of the subaqueous delta.

Geotechnical and Mineralogical Properties of the Recently Exposed Black Mud Deposits along the Northeastern Shore of the Dead Sea

Along the recently evacuated shores of the retreating Dead Sea black mud deposits have been exposed and hence subjected to head ward erosion resulting in landslides and land collapses threatening herewith the infrastructure in the area. The geotechnical and mineralogical characterization of the black mud show the presence of a variety of clays including smectite, kaolinite, illite, montmorollinite and muscovite with a natural water content near the liquid limit. These geotechnical and mineralogical properties indicate that the mud is prone to rapid erosion and sliding, which actually hit the area and have until now caused damages and degrading topography and geology in the area. The study also refers the origin of the black mud and its organic content to the erosion and deposition of Upper Cretaceous-Tertiary oil shale deposits formerly covering the whole surrounding areas of the Dead Sea. The study suggests engineering solutions to the geologic degradation processes in the area, before further damage to the infrastructure takes place.

Late Quaternary sedimentary environmental evolution offshore of the Hangzhou Bay,East China——implications for sea level change and formation of Changjiang alongshore current

This study focuses on sedimentary environmental changes offshore of Hangzhou Bay, East China, since the Late Quaternary. AMS ^14C ages from core CJK10, lithologies, distribution of foraminifera, heavy minerals, and S and C1 elements show a fluvial terrace environment during -23.2-11.0 cal ka BP; a littoral to tidal-flat environment during 11.0-10.2 cal ka BP; and a shallow marine environment with a relatively low sedimentation rate （0.1-0.22 cm/a） since 4.3 cal ka BP. High depositional rates （-1.6 cm/a） from 10.9 to 10.2 cal ka BP resulted from sufficient accommodation space created by rapid sea level rise from -44 m to -33 m, from high sediment delivery by local rivers, and effective trapping of sediments by tidal-flat vegetation. The rate of sea level rise was variable; relatively high from 10.9 to 10.6 cal ka BP （2.1 cm/a）, and lower since 10.6 cal ka BP （1.2 cm/a）. The Changjiang alongshore current crossed the Hangzhou Bay to form the mud wedge on the inner shelf of the East China Sea later than 9.4 cal ka BP. The CJK10 site was a tide-dominated shelf environment and experienced erosion from approximately 9.4-9.2 cal ka BP to 4.3 cal ka BP. The depositional hiatus was caused by the Changjiang alongshore current, which was relatively weak during 9.4-7.5 cal ka BP and increased in strength during -7.5-4 cal ka BP. From -4.3 cal ka BP, a large amount of sediment from the Changjiang River was partly deposited on the continental shelf of Hangzhou Bay with some transported southward. Therefore, this study clarifies the history of Changjiang-derived sediment dispersal and deposition, although a detailed record of the changes in the Chang3iang alongshore current since 4.3 cal ka BP is difficult to obtain because of the scarcity of evidence.

南黄海SYS90-1A孔第四纪沉积物磁性地层学研究

可靠的年代地层框架是开展南黄海地区第四纪环境演变研究的基础。目前南黄海南部地区缺乏可靠年代学控制的长序列钻孔。通过对南黄海南部SYS90-1A孔(孔深90.1 m)沉积物开展详细的磁性地层学研究,并结合AMS14C测年结果及区域已有磁性地层学结果,建立南黄海南部地区第四纪沉积物年代地层框架。结果显示,SYS90-1A孔岩芯记录了从布容(Brunhes)正极性时至松山(Matuyama)负极性时上部,包括Kamikatsura和Santa Rosa地磁漂移事件。早、中更新世界线即布容正极性时与松山负极性时界线(B/M界线)深度位于74.2 m,Kamikatsura和Santa Rosa地磁漂移事件深度分别位于79.75~82.47 m和85.25~87.74 m。根据Kamikatsura和Santa Rosa地磁漂移事件的年代控制点和平均沉积速率,推算钻孔底部年龄为0.96 Ma。南黄海SYS90-1A孔早更新世晚期的沉积速率约为8.66 cm/ka,中更新世以来的沉积速率约为9.5 cm/ka,而全新世以来的沉积速率为12.8 cm/ka,沉积速率自早更新世晚期以来呈增加趋势。这一结果不仅为南黄海南部第四纪沉积物研究提供了有效的年代学约束,而且为南黄海地区第四纪地层划分和对比、沉积环境与气候变化、物源示踪等研究提供了重要的时间标尺。

全新世以来南黄海中部泥质区沉积物的源汇过程及其控制因素

南黄海中部泥质区沉积了大量来自邻近河流的陆源沉积物,是研究沉积物物源的良好区域,但其沉积物的输运过程和控制因素尚不明确。本文利用南黄海中部泥质区岩芯YSCW-1中沉积物的粒度和元素组成特征,查明自全新世以来研究区沉积物的源汇过程及其控制因素。基于^(14)C放射年龄,YSCW-1岩芯沉积物为9.3 ka以来的沉积,泥质沉积中心形成于约6.5 ka。粒度组成表明研究区沉积物主要由砂、粉砂和黏土组成。基于地球化学相关指标,研究区沉积物来源受到黄河和长江的影响。6.7 ka以前,黄河沉积物占据主导地位;6.7 ka之后长江对南黄海中部泥质区的贡献量增加,可能与黄海现代环流体系的形成有关,海洋锋面限制了黄河以及朝鲜河流沉积物向南黄海中部泥质区的输送。

自升式钻井平台在海底泥面以下定点精就位设计与实现

随着海上石油和天然气的开发活动日益活跃,渤海海域进入了油气大开发阶段,近几年陆续新建了多座海上生产平台。但是在有些新开发的海域区块内,由于其他防控的需要,禁止出现水面以上甚至禁止出现泥面以上的海上固定设施。本文通过改变常规钻井平台就位方案设计方式,改变常规钻井平台就位操作模式,成功实现了渤海海域钻井平台首次海底泥面以下定点精就位,对以后的钻井平台在海底泥面以下定点精就位作业具有一定的指导意义和借鉴作用。

河泥与海泥陶粒填料生物滞留设施径流控制试验

为探讨河道疏浚泥(河泥)和海洋疏浚泥(海泥)资源化用于生物滞留填料的可行性,分别以河泥和海泥为主要原料制备陶粒,并以两种陶粒为填料搭建了生物滞留试验柱,通过径流雨水渗滤模拟试验,研究了两种试验柱在不同降雨重现期、不同降雨历时和不同污染物质量浓度条件下的运行效果。结果表明:河泥与海泥陶粒作为填料时,生物滞留柱中COD、TP、TN和NH_(3)-N的淋失量较低,污染物淋失风险较小;在降雨重现期为0.5 a时,河泥与海泥陶粒填料生物滞留柱出流时间分别为49 min和48 min,平均水量削减率分别为34.36%和44.87%,比传统砂土填料生物滞留柱分别提高了34.75%和75.96%;河泥与海泥陶粒填料生物滞留柱对污染物的削减效果明显,对COD、TP、TN、NH_(3)-N平均负荷削减率分别为50.27%、99.08%、50.72%、79.15%与54.20%、99.58%、55.43%、80.86%,均高于传统砂土填料生物滞留柱。

深海资源钻探吸力桩建井模式研究

在深水油气、天然气水合物钻探过程中,建立井口是保证钻井作业安全和时效的关键。吸力桩建井作为一种新型建井模式是目前世界海洋工程领域的研究热点,研究吸力桩建井模式对提高深海建井技术创新和提升建井效率具有重要作用。吸力桩建井模式主要依靠负压作用来安装吸力桩,对土壤扰动小,能大幅度提高井口承载力,入泥深度相比传统建井模式大大减小;吸力桩还能够扩展容纳多个井口,结合井筒预斜设计可以克服软地层造斜难题。介绍了吸力桩建井的工艺流程,给出了吸力桩和井筒的设计方法,并利用南海某深水井场的土质参数设计了适用于该井场的吸力桩和井筒。设计计算结果表明,吸力桩建井模式能够很好地适应于该南海深水井场。研究表明,吸力桩建井模式为深海资源勘探开发建井提供了新的技术途径。

分级加卸载下南海珊瑚泥一维固结长期变形试验及模型研究

南海珊瑚泥是珊瑚群体死后的骨胳、碎屑聚积形成的海洋岩土体钙质软泥,具有特殊的工程性状,研究其在荷载作用下与时间相关的长期非线性变形对吹填岛礁建设和长期稳定分析具有重要意义。对珊瑚泥进行了3组不同加卸载方案的一维固结压缩试验,通过改变加载时间与加卸载循环圈数探究应力历史对其长期变形性质的影响,并针对珊瑚泥在加卸载试验条件下呈现出的瞬时变形、延时衰减与延时稳定变形3阶段规律,采用改进的Burgers模型拟合不同竖向应力作用下的ε-t(应变-时间)曲线,具有较高拟合精度。同时分析模型参数后发现,随着分级加载时间提高,瞬时应变增量及其增长率下降,最终荷载下的延时衰减时间缩短,延时稳定应变速率及最终荷载下的总应变增量减小。同一加卸载循环圈数中,同竖向应力下卸载阶段的瞬时应变增量小于加载阶段。随着加卸载循环圈数的增加,加、卸载各阶段瞬时应变增量均减小且二者相近,延时衰减时间缩短,延时稳定应变速率及最终荷载下的总应变增量减小。研究了分级加载时间与加卸载循环圈数对珊瑚泥长期变形性质的影响,旨在为岛礁建设中的堆载预压方案提供理论依据。

400 m级无隔水管泥浆回收系统研发及海试

无隔水管泥浆回收系统可以实现在开路钻井工况下进行泥浆回收循环再利用,具有安全环保、简化井身结构和降低钻探风险等优点。该技术在国外已发展多年并成功推广工业应用,国内目前尚处于跟踪研究阶段。本文介绍了我国首套400 m级无隔水管泥浆回收系统设计研发过程,并通过海试试验验证系统的各项功能及指标。结果表明,所研设备样机搭载于“海洋地质十号”船,设备装船适配合理,最大海试水深384.7 m,设备各项功能性均符合设计要求,成功实现泥浆液位的识别与自动控制功能,全流程验证无隔水管泥浆回收循环钻井技术可行性。

河流三角洲沉积体系再析

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