Driving Forces and Their Effects on Water Conservation Services in Forest Ecosystems in China

Identifying the driving forces that cause changes in forest ecosystem services related to water conservation is essential for the design of interventions that could enhance positive impacts as well as minimizing negative impacts. In this study, we propose an assessment concept framework model for indirect-direct-ecosystem service （IN-DI-ESS） driving forces within this context and method for index construction that considers the selection of a robust and parsimonious variable set. Factor analysis was integrated into two-stage data envelopment analysis （TS-DEA） to determine the driving forces and their effects on water conservation services in forest ecosystems at the provincial scale in China. The results showed the following. 1） Ten indicators with factor scores more than 0.8 were selected as the minimum data set. Four indicators comprising population density, per capita gross domestic product, irrigation efficiency, and per capita food consumption were the indirect driving factors, and six indicators comprising precipitation, farmland into forestry or pasture, forest cover, habitat area, water footprint, and wood extraction were the direct driving forces. 2） Spearman＇s rank correlation test was performed to compare the overall effectiveness in two periods： stage 1 and stage 2. The calculated coefficients were 0.245, 0.136, and 0.579, respectively, whereas the tabulated value was 0.562. This indicates that the driving forces obviously differed in terms of their contribution to the overall effectiveness and they caused changes in water conservation services in different stages. In terms of the variations in different driving force effects in the years 2000 and 2010, the overall, stage 1, and stage 2 variances were 0.020, 0.065, and 0.079 in 2000, respectively, and 0.018, 0.063, and 0.071 in 2010. This also indicates that heterogeneous driving force effects were obvious in the process during the same period. Identifying the driving forces that affect service changes and evaluating their efficiency have significant policy implications for the management of forest ecosystem services. Advanced effectiveness measures for weak regions could be improved in an appropriate manner. In this study, we showed that factor analysis coupled with TS-DEA based on the IN-D1-ESS framework can increase the parsimony of driving force indicators, as well as interpreting the interactions among indirect and direct driving forces with forest ecosystem water conservation services, and reducing the uncertainty related to the internal consistency during data selection.

Spatial matching and flow in supply and demand of water provision services: A case study in Xiangjiang River Basin

Global climate change and increased human consumption have aggravated the uneven spatiotemporal distribution of watershed water resources, affecting the water provision supply and demand state. However, this problem has often been ignored. The present study used the Xiangjiang River basin(XRB) as the study area, and the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs(InVEST) model, demand quantification model,supply–demand ratio, and water flow formula were applied to explore the spatial heterogeneity, flow, and equilibrium between water supply and demand. The results demonstrated significant spatial heterogeneity in the upstream, midstream, and downstream regions.The areas of water shortage were mainly located the downstream of the Changsha–Zhuzhou–Xiangtan urban agglomeration, and the Hengyang basin was the most scarcity area. Affected by terrain gradients and human needs, water flow varied from-16.33 × 10^(8) m^(3) to 13.69 × 10^(8) m^(3)from the upstream to the downstream area, which provided a possibility to reduce spatial heterogeneity. In the future, measures such as strengthening water resource system control,sponge city construction, and dynamic monitoring technology should be taken to balance the supply and demand of water in different river sections of the basin. This study can provide references for regulating water resources allocation in different reaches of the basin.

Urban Water Supply Industry Marketization of China in View of Public Water Service and Water Resource Management

Started with the discussions on the value orientation of urban water supply industry marketization,the article points out that the current urban water supply industry marketization reform is inconsistent with the goal of public water service equalization to some extent.The article also analyzes the problems emerged in urban water supply industry marketization reform and various rea-sons in view of efficiency and fairness.An efficiency and fairness oriented management model is built in this article to illustrate how the government should conciliate interests of various communities involved in the process of marketization reform of the urban water supply industry so as to actualize the coordination of efficiency and fairness.At the end,an assumption on urban water price is put forward to help achieve the public water service equalization.

Urban Services Delivery in Limbo： A Provisional Assessment of Gweru＇s Water Supply System

This study sought to assess Gweru＇s water supply system from the source to the consumer to find out whether the water is safe for domestic purposes, mainly consumption. Water samples were taken from Gwenoro dam （raw water）, Gwenoro treatment plant （treated water） as well as from GIS-generated random points of residential areas closest to Gwenoro and furthest from both the dam and the treatment plant. These were taken for laboratory testing where parameters like pH, hardness, turbidity and DO （dissolved oxygen） were tested. Questionnaires were used to solicit the views of the consumers on water quality and water service delivery from eight randomly selected residential suburbs. Interviews were also administered to Gwenoro Water Treatment Plant superintendent and deputy to get insight into the day to day challenges that they have to grapple with. Results generally show that treated water from Gwenoro treatment plant is relatively safe to drink for those who have access to it. However, some consumer points like Mkoba 13 and Mkoba 18 receive water whose DO is out of the recommended range. Suburbs which lie on higher ground like Mkoba 19 and Mkoba 14 however rarely receive water from Gwenoro with some residents of Mkoba 19 having had no water from their taps for more than three years now. The study recommends that new equipment be bought for the treatment plant so that treated water reaches all parts of the city. Newly resettled farmers in the Upper Runde Catchment must be resettled elsewhere while urban stream bank cultivation must be banned to reduce water pollution as well as possible sedimentation of Gwenoro dam.

Hydrological Services by Mountain Ecosystems in Qilian Mountain of China: A Review

Hydrological service is a hot issue in the current researches of ecosystem service, particularly in the upper reaches of mountain rivers in dry land areas, where the Qilian Mountain is a representative one. The Qilian Mountain, where forest, shrubland and grassland consist of its main ecosystems, can provide fresh water and many other ecosystem services, through a series of eco-hydrological process such as precipitation interception, soil water storage, and fresh water provision. Thus, monitoring water regulation and assessing the hydrological service of the Qilian Mountain are meaningful and helpful for the healthy development of the lower reaches of arid and semi-arid areas. In recent 10 years, hydrological services have been widely researched in terms of scale and landscape pattern, including water conservation, hydrological responses to afforestation and their ecological effects. This study, after analyzing lots of current models and applications of geographical information system（GIS） in hydrological services, gave a scientific and reasonable evaluation of mountain ecosystem in eco-hydrological services, by employing the combination of international forefronts and contentious issues into the Qilian Mountain. Assessments of hydrological services at regional or larger scales are limited compared with studies within watershed scale in the Qilian Mountain. In our evaluation results of forest ecosystems, it is concluded that long-term observation and dynamic monitoring of different types of ecosystem are indispensable, and the hydrological services and the potential variation in water supplement on regional and large scales should be central issues in the future research.v

Integration and Innovation of the Urban Water Cycle： The Waternet Experience

Waternet is the first water cycle company in the Netherlands, responsible for drinking water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, and water system management and control in and around Amsterdam. Waternet started on 1 January 2006 to overcome the disadvantages of the rather fragmented organisation of the Dutch public water sector. The water cycle concept offers better opportunities to meet the future challenges in the water sector. The first four years of operation of Waternet show very promising results with respect to efficiency, customer orientation and quality improvement. To further develop the water cycle concept and to find sustainable solutions for the challenges the water sector is confronted with, Waternet focuses on six strategic innovation areas the coming years： water resources and water system; closing the water cycle; sustainability; new sanitation concepts; new products and services; management innovations.

Assessment and regulation of ocean health based on ecosystem services: Case study in the Laizhou Bay, China

The ecosystem-based management of nearshore waters requires integrated assessment of ocean health and scientific guidance on artificial regulations to promote sustainable development. Quantitative approaches were developed in this paper to assess present and near-term ocean health based on ecosystem services. Results of the case study in the Laizhou Bay of China showed that the index score of ocean health was 0.785 6 out of 1.0 at present and was expected to range from 0.555 1 to 0.804 1 in the near-term future depending on different intensities of artificial regulation of negative pressures. Specifically, the results of ocean health at present mainly indicated that cultural services and provisioning services performed essentially perfectly while supporting services and regulating services functioned less well. It can be concluded that this nearshore ecosystem would partially lose supporting and regulating services in the near-term future if the increasing pressures were not wellregulated but that all of these categories of ecosystem services could be slightly improved if the negative pressures were fully controlled. Additionally, it is recommended that publicity and education on ecosystem services especially on cultural services and regulating services should be further strengthened. The analytical process and resulting quantification provide flexible tools to guide future development of regulations so as to facilitate ecosystem-based management in the coastal zone.

Empowering Conditions for Good Water Governance-a Sustainable Model： Vilanculos Case Study （Mozambique）

This article shows the results of the project Empowering conditions for good water governance-a sustainable model： Vilanculos case study （Mozambique）, co-financed by the European Community. This project had the aim of improving sanitary conditions and increasing economic and financial sustainability of water services for the population of Vilanculos. The project has been developed and deployed with cooperation between Acque del Chiampo （an Italian water utility, near Vicenza）, the University of Brescia and the Vilanculos public water service utility, Empresa Mo^ambicana de Agua （EMA）. The paper reports analytical praxis for water distribution measurements, capable of providing essential data about the water network performances, to assess the eventual need for actions in order to solve possible and effective problems of the water service. These practices involve flow and pressure analyses, pinpointing of the network＇s criticalities and leakages by in-situ inspections along the network, managing the valves together with water service utility, as well as the use of a water distribution model to simulate the effects of the proposed interventions and specific software to automatically register bills and payments.

Using Geospatial Information Component to Monitor the Watersheds along the Densu Basin in Ghana

The Densu basin is a coastal river catchment in southern Ghana and a typical rural community like all other rural settlements in Ghana. It is the only basin amongst 43 other basins of the country that supplies water to two regional capitals of Ghana, namely, the capital city of Ghana, Accra and Eastern regional capital, Koforidua. The qualities of these water resources vary naturally and widely depending on climate, season, and the geology of the bedrock, as well as anthropogenic activities. The primary aim of this research is to determine data requirements for efficient and cost-effective development of a Geographic Information System (GIS) to map and detect the extent of the sources of the watersheds and how to protect the environment for continuous supply of water. Among the Nine catchment areas, only one catchment WSA_05 (Koforidua Township) was determined to have a very high risk of being vulnerable and therefore required urgency to protect environment for continuous supply of water. Four catchment areas WSA_02 (Weija Dam), WSA_03 (Apedwa-Asafo), WSA_06 (Suhum) and WSA_09 (New Tafo) were determined to have a high risk of being affected and therefore there was the need to protect the environment for continuous supply of water. Ghana as a country will have to take a responsible step in protecting its water body and its environment to enable continuous and sustainable supply of water to its citizens. This study therefore reveals the state of the water users and how urgent it environment needs to be protected.

Effect of Donor Funding on the Performance of Water Utilities in Kenya

The objective of this study was to analyse the effect of donor funding on the performance of water utilities in Kenya.The study employed the use of a census by targeting all 88 regulated Water Services Providers(WSPs)in Kenya for a period of two years,2016 and 2017.Data pertaining to the support received from the donors were obtained from the publications of the WSPs,Development Partners,Civil Society Organisations(CSOs),and Office of Auditor General(OAG).Performance data of the various WSPs were extracted from the Impact reports produced by Water Regulatory Board(WASREB),for the periods 2016/7 to 2017/8.Presentation of the data was done through the use of tables and charts with the application of SPSS.The study found that donor funding issued as Output Based Approach(OBA)leads to improved performance.This finding is expected to assist the Kenyan Government in negotiating for the Official Development Assistance(ODA)funding to be aligned to the government flagship projects under the Medium Term Plans(MTP).The study recommends OBA as the best way of issuing donor funding.

Modelling Ecosystem Water Supply Services across the Lancang River Basin

Ecosystem services related to water supply are now a hot topic in ecology and hydrology. Here, water supply service in the Lancang River basin was evaluated using the newly developed model InVEST. We found the mean annual water supply in Lancang River basin is approximately 7.24E＋10 m3 y-1 with 23.87% from main stream and 76.13% from the tributaries. There is an increasing trend downstream. Grasslands and forests contribute 71.66% of the total water. A comparison of water supply capacity per unit area for ecosystems of different composition indicates that there is a decreasing trend from broad- leafed forest, mixed coniferous and broad-leafed forest, bamboo forest, coniferous forest, shrub forest and grassland. Two-thirds of the total water is provided by an area covering 40% of the total basin area. This study provides guidelines for the efficient management of water resources in the Lancang River basin.

Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Supply and Demand Balance of Water Supply Services in the Dongjiang Lake Basin and Its Beneficiary Areas

Water-related ecosystem services is a hot topic in ecological research. Water supply services are crucial to regional water cycles and water quantity balance. The Dongjiang Lake basin is a national priority river basin in China where ecological compensation pilot programs concerning water resources and water supply services are top priorities for ecosystem service protection. We analyzed spatial and temporal patterns associated with generation and use of water supply services in the Dongjiang Lake basin using the In VEST model, socio-economic data and water resource data. We found that between 1995 and 2010, water yield in the Dongjiang Lake basin and its beneficiary areas increased before declining, varying 9350–12 400 m3 ha-1 y-1; average water yield peaked in 2000. The spatial distribution patterns of water yield during these years are similar, progressively decreasing from upstream to downstream with a remarkable reduction in surrounding areas of city clusters. Average water consumption of the basin and its beneficiary areas ranged from 2900–4450 m3 ha-1 y-1 between 1995 and 2010; the spatial distribution patterns of water consumption during these years are similar, dropping gradually from urban construction land to its surroundings with a stronger gradient between urban and rural areas. More water was consumed on both banks and surroundings of the lake. From 1995 to 2010, water supply fell short of demand for urban construction land and its proximity as well as areas along the lake. Water supply services were able to satisfy needs in other regions. The Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan city cluster suffers from the most strained water supply.

Analysis on the Spatio-temporal Patterns of Water Conservation Services in Beijing

The shortage of water resources is a key factor limiting the sustainable development of the economy and society in Beijing. This study analysed the spatiotemporal patterns of Beijing’s water conservation services(WCS) based on the water balance equation at multiple scales, including city, main functional areas and key districts and counties, determined the differences in the water conservation amount among different land cover types and investigated the reasons for the spatiotemporal differences in the water conservation amount. The results indicated that:(1) compared to 2005, water conservation amount increased substantially in 2010. However, the overall water conservation capacity was low.(2) Among the various land cover types in Beijing, the average water conservation capacity decreased in the following order: wetland, forest, grassland, cropland, bare land and artificial surface.(3) The average water conservation amount in the main functional areas of Beijing varied substantially and was positive only in the ecological conservation area(ECA).(4) The water conservation capacity of each district and county varied substantially within ECA, among which the contribution of the forest in Miyun District, Huairou District and Pinggu District was the highest. The changes in the spatiotemporal patterns of Beijing’s WCS were the synthetic effects of changes in the land covers and meteorological conditions. This study is helpful in achieving the sustainable utilization of water resources in Beijing.

Attribution analysis for water yield service based on the geographical detector method:A case study of the Hengduan Mountain region

Ecosystem services,which include water yield services,have been incorporated into decision processes of regional land use planning and sustainable development.Spatial pattern characteristics and identification of factors that influence water yield are the basis for decision making.However,there are limited studies on the driving mechanisms that affect the spatial heterogeneity of ecosystem services.In this study,we used the Hengduan Mountain region in southwest China,with obvious spatial heterogeneity,as the research site.The water yield module in the InVEST software was used to simulate the spatial distribution of water yield.Also,quantitative attribution analysis was conducted for various geomorphological and climatic zones in the Hengduan Mountain region by using the geographical detector method.Influencing factors,such as climate,topography,soil,vegetation type,and land use type and pattern,were taken into consideration for this analysis.Four key findings were obtained.First,water yield spatial heterogeneity is influenced most by climate-related factors,where precipitation and evapotranspiration are the dominant factors.Second,the relative importance of each impact factor to the water yield heterogeneity differs significantly by geomorphological and climatic zones.In flat areas,the influence of evapotranspiration is higher than that of precipitation.As relief increases,the importance of precipitation increases and eventually,it becomes the most influential factor.Evapotranspiration is the most influential factor in a plateau climate zone,while in the mid-subtropical zone,precipitation is the main controlling factor.Third,land use type is also an important driving force in flat areas.Thus,more attention should be paid to urbanization and land use planning,which involves land use changes,to mitigate the impact on water yield spatial pattern.The fourth finding was that a risk detector showed that Primarosol and Anthropogenic soil areas,shrub areas,and areas with slope<5°and 250-350 should be recognized as water yield important zones,while the corresponding elevation values are different among different geomorphological and climatic zones.Therefore,the spatial heterogeneity and influencing factors in different zones should be fully con-sidered while planning the maintenance and protection of water yield services in the Hengduan Mountain region.

Priority areas for watershed service conservation in the Guapi-Macacu region of Rio de Janeiro,Atlantic Forest,Brazil

Introduction:Land use intensification and urbanisation processes are degrading hydrological ecosystem services in the Guapi-Macacu watershed of Rio de Janeiro.A proposal to pay farmers to restore natural watershed services might be an alternative to securing the water supply in the long-term for the around 2.5 million urban water users in the study region.This study quantifies the costs of changing current land use patterns to enhance watershed services and compares these costs to the avoided costs associated with water treatment for public supply.Methods:We use farm-household data to estimate the opportunity costs of abandoning current land uses for the recovery of natural vegetation;a process that is very likely to improve water quality in terms of turbidity due to reduced inputs from erosion.Opportunity cost estimates are extrapolated to the watershed scale based on remote sensing land use classifications and vulnerability analysis to identify priority zones for watershed management interventions.To assess the potential demand for watershed services,we analyse water quality and treatment cost data from the main local water treatment plant.Results:Changing agricultural land uses for watershed services provision generally comes at high opportunity costs in our study area near to the metropolis of Rio de Janeiro.Alternative low cost watershed conservation options do exist in the livestock production sector.These options have the potential to directly reduce the amount of sediments and nutrients reaching the water bodies,and in turn decrease the costs of treatment needed for drinking water.Land cover changes at the scale needed to improve water quality will,nonetheless,likely exceed the cost of additional investments in water treatment.Conclusions:The state water utility company’s willingness to pay for watershed services alone will not be enough to induce provision of additional watershed services.We conclude that monetary incentives conditioned on specific adjustments to existing production systems could still have a complementary role to play in improving watershed services.However,we note that our willingness to pay analysis focusses on only one of the potentially wide range of ecosystem services provided by natural vegetation in the Guapi-Macacu watershed.Factoring these ecosystem services into the willingness to pay equation is likely to change our assessment in favour of additional conservation action,be it through PES or other policy instruments.

Spatially-explicit quantitative relationship for a potential PES mechanism:Cascade hydropower development in Yarlung Zangbo River Basin, China

Payment for ecosystem services(PES) is of great importance for the sustainable development of mountain areas, key hotspot regions for the provisioning of ecosystem services. At present, PES researches mainly focus on forest protection, carbon sink trading, and water protection. As an important industry in mountainous areas, cascade hydropower development has generated substantial economic benefits accompanied by social and ecological impacts. However, efficient PES mechanisms to deal with hydropower generation in mountain areas are still unavailable. Therefore, the lacking of PES in mountain systems limits the development of those areas, and compromise the sustainability of hydropower development. The critical reason lies in the lack of a scientific method that can quantitatively analyze the relationship of hydropower stations with a geographical scope at county level(i.e., quantifying the water yield service provided by each county within the cascade hydropower development basin), and with different hydropower enterprises. We use the Yarlung Zangbo River Basin of China as case study area, one of the major hydropower development basins in China. First, we used Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs(InVEST) model to map water yield service. Then, we calculated the value of water yield service by relating the water yield to the gross output value of hydropower stations. We revealed the relationship(e.g., hydropower stations and identified counties) between the payers and the payees of ecosystem services through mapping and quantifying the provisioning regions in the supply of water yield service and the users(hydropower enterprises). Finally, we discussed the current situation of benefit distribution in cascade hydropower development basin based on the supply and use of the water yield service. The results showed that 1) the spatial distribution of the value of water yield service is uneven: the upper reaches are highvalue areas;the eastern region is higher than the western region;and the maximum value(USD 119.2$/km2) is 34 times higher than the minimum value(USD 3.5 $/km2). 2) We found that four state-owned enterprises are the direct beneficiaries of water yield service, and 37 counties are suppliers, among which Gongbogyamda, Lhari and Damxung are the first level of supply. 3) Each hydropower station is provided with water yield service by several counties, and the value of water yield service varies greatly in each county, showing spatial differences. 4) Most counties are only partially involved in the process of water yield service being used by hydropower stations(i.e.,the boundary of water yield service is inconsistent with the administrative boundary). 5) Huaneng Tibet Yarlung Zangbo River Hydropower Development and Investment Co., Ltd. gets the greatest value(USD 1.8million $) from the use of water yield service, while China Energy Tibet Electric Power Co., Ltd. gets the smallest(USD 389.1 thousand $). 6) Counties near the lower reaches have gained more economic benefits, while the water yield service they provide have the lowest contribution to hydropower production. Our approach linked water yield ecosystem service and hydropower development effectively, and revealed their complex eco-economic relationship between producers and beneficiaries of ecosystem services, which provides key insights for the designing of a potential PES mechanism.

Spatio-temporal Evolution and Flow of Water Provision Service Balance in Jinghe River Basin

Quantifying the whole process of ecosystem services from generation through transfer to use,and analyzing the balance between the supply and demand of regional ecosystem services are of great significance for formulating regional sustainable development strategies,realizing regional ecosystem management,and effective resource allocation.Based on the SWAT model,InVEST model,ArcGIS,and other software,this study analyzed the supply-demand balance of water provision services in Jinghe River Basin,a typical region located in the Loess Plateau,using multi-source data.This research then analyzed the spatial-temporal distribution pattern and spatial matching characteristics of the supply and demand of water provision services in Jinghe River Basin from 2000 to 2015.On this basis,a spatial flow model of water provision service was constructed,the flow rules(flow paths)of the water provision service were explored at the subwatershed scale,and the spatial scope of the supply area and benefit area were depicted.The results show that:(1)Water resource supply and demand in the Jinghe River basin both showed increasing trends from 2000 to 2015.(2)The supply-demand balance of water resources was generally up to the standard,however,there were significant differences between urban and rural areas.The supply-demand balances of the central urban areas of each county were relatively low,and even exceeded the supply in the lower reaches of the Jingyang River,such as Gaoling County,Qindu District,and Jingyang County.In rural areas,due to the small population and industrial distribution,coupled with a better ecological environmental base,the supply-demand balance was relatively high,such as Pengyang County,Lingtai County,Huachi County,Huanxian County,Ningxian County,and Zhenyuan County.(3)From 2000 to 2015,the spatial matching pattern of supply and demand in the Jinghe River Basin showed a trend of decline with fluctuations.In 2015,the supply-demand ratios of more than 60%of the subwatersheds showed trends of decline,and the proportion of under-supply area increased by 55.7%in 2015 compared with that in 2000.(4)The supply areas of water provision service in Jinghe River Basin are distributed in the upper reaches of the basin,and the benefit areas are Huating County,Chongxin County,Yongshou County,Chunhua County,Ganxian County,Liquan County,Qindu District,and others in the middle and lower reaches.