Sheet Metal Forming Simulation and Its Application in Stamping Process of Automobile Panels

The paper starts with a brief overview to the necessity of sheet metal forming simulation and the complexity of automobile panel forming, then leads to finite element analysis (FEA) which is a powerful simulation tool for analyzing complex three-dimensional sheet metal forming problems. The theory and features of the dynamic explicit finite element methods are introduced and the available various commercial finite element method codes used for sheet metal forming simulation in the world are discussed,and the civil and international status quo of automobile panel simulation as well. The front door outer panel of one certain new automobile is regarded as one example that the dynamic explicit FEM code Dynaform is used for the simulation of the front door outer panel forming process. Process defects such as ruptures are predicted. The improving methods can be given according to the simulation results. Foreground of sheet metal forming simulation is outlined.

SIX SIGMA OPTIMIZATION IN SHEET METAL FORMING BASED ON DUAL RESPONSE SURFACE MODEL

Iterations in optimization and numerical simulation for the sheet metal forming process may lead to extensive computation. In addition, uncertainties in materials or processing parameters may have great influence on the design quality. A six sigma optimization method is proposed, by combining the dual response surface method （DRSM） and six sigma philosophy, to save computation cost and improve reliability and robustness of parts. Using this method, statistical technology, including the design of experiment and analysis of variance, approximate model and six sigma philosophy are integrated together to achieve improved quality. Two sheet metal forming processes are provided as examples to illustrate the proposed method.

FAST ACCURATE PREDICTION OF BLANK SHAPE IN SHEET METAL FORMING

By using the Finite Element Inverse Approach based on the Hill quadratic anisotrop-ically yield criterion and the quadrilateral element, a fast analyzing software-FASTAMP for the sheet metal forming is developed. The blank shapes of three typical stampings are simulated and compared with numerical results given by the AUTOFORM software and experimental results, respectively. The comparison shows that the FASTAMP can predict blank shape and strain distribution of the stamping more precisely and quickly than those given by the traditional methods and the AUTOFORM.

Sheet Metal Forming Optimization by Using Surrogate Modeling Techniques

Surrogate assisted optimization has been widely applied in sheet metal forming design due to its efficiency. Therefore, to improve the efficiency of design and reduce the product development cycle, it is important for scholars and engineers to have some insight into the performance of each surrogate assisted optimization method and make them more flexible practically. For this purpose, the state-of-the-art surrogate assisted optimizations are investigated. Furthermore, in view of the bottleneck and development of the surrogate assisted optimization and sheet metal forming design, some important issues on the surrogate assisted optimization in support of the sheet metal forming design are analyzed and discussed, involving the description of the sheet metal forming design, off-line and online sampling strategies, space mapping algorithm, high dimensional problems, robust design, some challenges and potential feasible methods. Generally, this paper provides insightful observations into the performance and potential development of these methods in sheet metal forming design.

NC INCREMENTAL SHEET METAL FORMING PROCESS AND VERTICAL WALL SQUARE BOX FORMING

The forming principle and deformation analysis of NC incremental sheet metalforming process as well as the process planning, experiment and key process parameters of verticalwall square box forming are presented. Because the deformation of sheet metal only occurs around thetool head and the deformed region is subjected to stretch deformation, the deformed region of sheetmetal thins, and surface area increases. Sheet metal forming stepwise is to lead to the whole sheetmetal deformation. The forming half-apex angle 9 and corner radius R are the main processparameters in NC incremental forming of vertical wall square box. According to sine law, a verticalwall square box can't be formed by NC incremental sheet metal forming process in a single process,rather, it must be formed in multi processes. Thus, the parallel line type tool path process methodis presented to form the vertical wall square box, and the experiment and analysis are made toverify it.

STUDY ON THE FINITE ELEMENT NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF SHEET METAL FORMING

Based on the Finite Element Theory of Rigid Plastic,relevant problems during plas-tic simulation on sheet metal forming were technologically studied and simplified;a simplified model of the blank holder during the drawing process was established and the effects of related parameters on the forming processes were also studied.At the same time,a finite--element numerical simulation program SPID was developed.The distribution of strain and relationship of stress--stroke simulated were compared with experimented,the results are well coincided with each other.It is verified that the analytical program is reliable.

EXPERIMENTAL TESTING OF DRAW-BEAD RESTRAINING FORCE IN SHEET METAL FORMING

Due to complexities of draw-bead restraining force calculated according to theory and depending on sheet metal forming properties experiment testing system, a simplified method to calculate draw-bead restraining force is put forward by experimental method in cup-shaped drawing process. The experimental results were compared with numerical results and proved agreement. It shows the method is effective.

IoT-enabled energy efficiency monitoring and analysis method for energy saving in sheet metal forming workshop

Sheet metal forming,as a typical energy-intensive process,consumes massive energy.Due to the significant difference between sheet metal forming and machining,manufacturers still lack an effective method to monitor and analyze the energy efficiency in the sheet metal forming workshop.To this end,an energy efficiency monitoring and analysis(EEMA)method,which is supported by Internet of Things(IoT),is proposed.The characteristics in a forming workshop are first analyzed,and then the architecture of the method is expatiated-detailedly.Energy efficiency indicators at machine level,process level,and workshop level are defined,respectively.Finally,a sheet metal forming workshop for the deformation of panels of forklift was investigated to validate the effectiveness and benefits of the proposed method.With the application of the IoT-enabled method,various energy-saving decisions can be made by the management of the enterprises for energy efficiency improvement and energy consumption reduction(EEIECR)in the sheet metal forming workshop.

Experimental Investigation of the Effect of the Material Damage Induced in Sheet Metal Forming Process on the Service Performance of 22MnB5 Steel

The use of ultra-high strength steels through sheet metal forming process offers a practical solution to the lightweight design of vehicles.However,sheet metal forming process not only produces desirable changes in material properties but also causes material damage that may adversely influence the service performance of the material formed.Thus,an investigation is conducted to experimentally quantify such influence for a commonly used steel（the 22MnB5 steel） based on the hot and cold forming processes.For each process,a number of samples are used to conduct a uniaxial tensile test to simulate the forming process.After that,some of the samples are trimmed into a standard shape and then uniaxially extended until fracture to simulate the service stage.Finally,a microstructure test is conducted to analyze the microdefects of the remaining samples.Based on the results of the first two tests,the effect of material damage on the service performance of 22MnB5 steel is analyzed.It is found that the material damages of both the hot and cold forming processes cause reductions in the service performance,such as the failure strain,the ultimate stress,the capacity of energy absorption and the ratio of residual strain.The reductions are generally lower and non-linear in the former process but higher and linear in the latter process.Additionally,it is found from the microstructure analysis that the difference in the reductions of the service performance of 22MnB5 by the two forming processes is driven by the difference in the micro damage mechanisms of the two processes.The findings of this research provide a useful reference in terms of the selection of sheet metal forming processes and the determination of forming parameters for 22MnB5.

A MODIFIED ALGORITHM FOR DEALING WITH HOLDER FRICTION BOUNDARY CONDITION IN SIMULATION OF SHEET METAL FORMING

This paper investigates the equivalent model for the friction boundary condition between blank and holder during sheet metal forming simulation, and proposes an equivalent algorithm, the thickness threshold value algorithm, for the first time based on thickness weighting. This algorithm assumes that the holder clearance is uniform during sheet metal forming; and the main reason for the unevenness of friction force distribution under the holder is that the uneven deformation of the blank leads to its uneven thickness distribution, which makes the local pressure on the blank distributed unevenly. The algorithm proposed in this paper can effectively simulate the influence of the unevenness on the forming process. Validity of this algorithm is verified by a comparison between the simulation results and the experimental ones for the drawing process of a car spring base.

A first order friction model for lubricated sheet metal forming

This paper presents the derivation of a first order friction model for lubricated sheet metal forming.Assuming purely plastic real contacts, Newton's law of viscosity, and a square root behavior of the hydrodynamic coefficient of friction with respect to the hydrodynamic Hersey parameter an analytic model is found. The model predicts the coefficient of friction as a function of the relative pressure, the relative Hersey parameter and the real contact coefficient of friction. Questions about local and global friction are raised in the validation of the model against flat tool sheet experiments. For some flat tool sheet experiments reasonable agreements are obtained assuming a rigid punch pressure distribution. The restricted number of user inputs makes the model useful in early tool design simulations.

Overview on the Prediction Models for Sheet Metal Forming Failure:Necking and Ductile Fracture

The formability of the material determines the amount of available deformation before failure and thus is important for the production of various structural components in industries. The workability of materiMs is commonly evaluated by different forms of failure mod- els during sheet metal forming （SMF） processes. In order to provide a whole picture about the prediction models for SMF failure, necking-related formability and ductile fracture-related forma- bility studies in SMF processes are systematically summarized, the applicability and limitation of each model are highlighted, and the link between forming limit diagram and ductile fracture criterion is pointed out, Conclusions about some critical issues on failure in SMF are made.

NUMERICAL PREDICTIONS AND EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATIONS OF DUCTILE DAMAGE EVOLUTION IN SHEET METAL FORMING PROCESSES

Prediction of forming limit in sheet metal forming is among the most important challenges confronting researchers. In this paper, a fully coupled elastic-plastic-damage model has been developed and implemented into an explicit code. Due to the adoption of the plane stress and finite strain theories, model can predict deformation and damage of parts quickly and accurately. Also, damage initiation, propagation, and fracture in some operations are predicted and validated with experiments. It is concluded that finite strain combined with continuum damage mechanics can be used as a quick tool to predict ductile damage, fracture, and forming limits in sheet metal forming processes.

PREDICTION OF PATH-DEPENDENT FAILURE IN ALUMINUM SHEET METALS UNDER FORMING OPERATIONS

An approximate macroscopic yield criterion for anisotropic porous sheet metals is adopted in a failure prediction methodology that can be used to investigate the failure of sheet metals under forming operations. This failure prediction methodology is developed based on the Marciniak-Kuczynski approach by assuming a slightly higher void volume fraction inside randomly oriented imperfecte analysis. Here, a nonproportional deformation history including relative rotation of principal stretch directions is identified in a selected critical element of an aluminum sheet from a FEM fender forming simulation. Based on the failure prediction methodology, the failure of the critical sheet element is investigated under the non-proportional deformation history. The results show that thiven non-proportional deformation history.

FORMING FREEFORM SURFACE SHEET METAL USING INTEGRATED REVERSE ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

This paper presented a model of integrated reverse engineering system and set up its various data output flowchart, which is easy to be associated with other systems. The idea of integrated reverse engineer is introduced to the system of forming sheet metal with complex surface and using IDEF0 method sets up the function model of the system. The freeform surface reconstruction and CAD modeling of the system are described and decomposed. This paper discussed some problems, such as the feature expression, feature modeling and feature translation of the sheet parts and dies.

Deforming analysis of sheet metal based on stereo vision and coordinate grid

A new approach based on stereo vision technology is introduced to analyzesheet metal deformation. By measuring the deformed circle grids that are printed on the sheetsurface before forming, the strain distribution of the workpiece is obtained. The measurement andanalysis results can be used to verify numerical simulation results and guide production. To getgood accuracy, some new techniques are employed: camera calibration based on genetic algorithm,feature abstraction based on self-adaptive technology, image matching based on structure feature andcamera modeling pre-constrains, and parameter calculation based on curve and surface optimization.The experimental values show that the approach proposed is rational and practical, which can providebetter measurement accuracy with less time than the conventional method.

A Study on Super Speed Forming of Metal Sheet by Laser Shock Waves

Metal sheet plastic deformation or forming is gener at ed through a mechanical pressure or a thermal variation. These pressure variatio ns or thermal variations can be created by a variety of means such as press form ing, hydroforming, imploding detonation and so on. According to the magnitude of the strain rates all these forming methods can be divided into quasi-static fo rming and dynamical forming. Up to now there are no reports of forming methods w ith the strain rates above 10 5sec -1, even though the exploding forming. In this article, we work on a dynamic super-speed forming method driven by lase r shock waves and advanced a novel concept of laser shock forming. The initial o bservation of the laser shock forming is done through a bugle testing with speci mens of SUS430 sheet metal, using a neodymium-glass laser of pulse energy 10J～ 3 0J and duration of 20 ns (FWHM). The investigation revealed that the plastic de formation during the laser shock forming is characterized as ultrahigh strain ra te up to 10 7sec -1. We indicate that plastic deformation increases nonlin early when the energy density of the laser varies. By investigating the hardness and residual stress of the surfaces, we conclude that laser shock forming is a combination technique of laser shock strengthening and metal forming for introdu cing a strain harden and a compressive residual stress on the surface of the wor k-piece, and the treated surface by laser shock forming has good properties in fatigue and corrosion resistance. This technique can achieve forming wit h or without mould.

DEFORMATION ANALYSIS OF SHEET METAL SINGLE-POINT INCREMENTAL FORMING BY FINITE ELEMENT METHOD SIMULATION

Single-point incremental forming （SPIF） is an innovational sheet metal forming method without dedicated dies, which belongs to rapid prototyping technology. In generalizing the SPIF of sheet metal, the deformation analysis on forming process becomes an important and useful method for the planning of shell products, the choice of material, the design of the forming process and the planning of the forming tool. Using solid brick elements, the finite element method（FEM） model of truncated pyramid was established. Based on the theory of anisotropy and assumed strain formulation, the SPIF processes with different parameters were simulated. The resulted comparison between the simulations and the experiments shows that the FEM model is feasible and effective. Then, according to the simulated forming process, the deformation pattern of SPIF can be summarized as the combination of plane-stretching deformation and bending deformation. And the study about the process parameters＇ impact on deformation shows that the process parameter of interlayer spacing is a dominant factor on the deformation. Decreasing interlayer spacing, the strain of one step decreases and the formability of blank will be improved. With bigger interlayer spacing, the plastic deformation zone increases and the forming force will be bigger.

QUANTITATIVE PREDICTION FOR SPRINGBACK OF UNLOADING AND TRIMMING IN SHEET METAL STAMPING FORMING

Based on the elastic-plastic large deformation finite element formulation as well as the shell element combined discrete Kirchhoff theoretical plate element (DKT) with membrane square element, deep-drawing bending springback of typical U-pattern is studied. At the same time the springback values of the drawing of patterns' unloading and trimming about the satellite aerial reflecting surface are predicted and also compared with those of the practical punch. Above two springbacks all obtain satisfactory results, which provide a kind of effective quantitative pre-prediction of springback for the practical engineers.

Plasma-Jet Forming of Sheet Metal Shapes

Plasma-jet forming is a newly proposed flexible sheet metal forming process. A non-transferred arc plasma torch is used as a controllable heat source to produce internal stress in sheet metals, causing plastic deformation without the necessity of hard tooling. This method has potential for rapid prototyping of sheet metal parts by reducing development costs and lead times. A robotic system has been used to perform simple linear bends in several different alloys. In order to develop a controllable process and to improve the forming accuracy, the effects of various process parameters on the obtained shape changes and on the resulting structure and properties have been studied. The overall goal is to understand the roles of the forming parameters and their inter-relationship in optimizing the forming procedure-a high forming speed without damage to the material structure or properties.