Study of short-term synaptic plasticity in Ion-Gel gated graphene electric-double-layer synaptic transistors

Multi-terminal electric-double-layer transistors have recently attracted extensive interest in terms of mimicking synaptic and neural functions.In this work,an Ion-Gel gated graphene synaptic transistor was proposed to mimic the essential synaptic behaviors by exploiting the bipolar property of graphene and the ionic conductivity of Ion-Gel.The Ion-Gel dielectrics were deposited onto the graphene film by the spin coating process.We consider the top gate and graphene channel as a presynaptic and postsynaptic terminal,respectively.Basic synaptic functions were successfully mimicked,including the excitatory postsynaptic current(EPSC),the effect of spike amplitude and duration on EPSC,and paired-pulse facilitation(PPF).This work may facilitate the application of graphene synaptic transistors in flexible electronics.

A mathematical model of synaptotagmin 7 revealing functional importance of short-term synaptic plasticity

Synaptotagmin 7(Syt7), a presynaptic calcium sensor, has a significant role in the facilitation in shortterm synaptic plasticity: Syt7 knock out mice show a significant reduction in the facilitation. The functional importance of short-term synaptic plasticity such as facilitation is not well understood. In this study, we attempt to investigate the potential functional relationship between the short-term synaptic plasticity and postsynaptic response by developing a mathematical model that captures the responses of both wild-type and Syt7 knock-out mice. We then studied the model behaviours of wild-type and Syt7 knock-out mice in response to multiple input action potentials. These behaviors could establish functional importance of short-term plasticity in regulating the postsynaptic response and related synaptic properties. In agreement with previous modeling studies, we show that release sites are governed by non-uniform release probabilities of neurotransmitters. The structure of non-uniform release of neurotransmitters makes shortterm synaptic plasticity to act as a high-pass filter. We also propose that Syt7 may be a modulator for the long-term changes of postsynaptic response that helps to train the target frequency of the filter. We have developed a mathematical model of short-term plasticity which explains the experimental data.

3'-Deoxyadenosin alleviates methamphetamine-induced aberrant synaptic plasticity and seeking behavior by inhibiting the NLRP3 inflammasome

Methamphetamine addiction is a brain disorder characterized by persistent drug-seeking behavior, which has been linked with aberrant synaptic plasticity. An increasing body of evidence suggests that aberrant synaptic plasticity is associated with the activation of the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing-3(NLRP3) inflammasome. 3′-Deoxyadenosin, an active component of the Chinese fungus Cordyceps militaris, has strong anti-inflammatory effects. However, whether 3′-deoxyadenosin attenuates methamphetamine-induced aberrant synaptic plasticity via an NLRP3-mediated inflammatory mechanism remains unclear. We first observed that 3′-deoxyadenosin attenuated conditioned place preference scores in methamphetamine-treated mice and decreased the expression of c-fos in hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, we found that 3′-deoxyadenosin reduced the aberrant potentiation of glutamatergic transmission and restored the methamphetamine-induced impairment of synaptic plasticity. We also found that 3′-deoxyadenosin decreased the expression of NLRP3 and neuronal injury. Importantly, a direct NLRP3 deficiency reduced methamphetamine-induced seeking behavior, attenuated the impaired synaptic plasticity, and prevented neuronal damage. Finally, NLRP3 activation reversed the effect of 3′-deoxyadenosin on behavior and synaptic plasticity, suggesting that the anti-neuroinflammatory mechanism of 3′-deoxyadenosin on aberrant synaptic plasticity reduces methamphetamine-induced seeking behavior. Taken together, 3′-deoxyadenosin alleviates methamphetamine-induced aberrant synaptic plasticity and seeking behavior by inhibiting the NLRP3 inflammasome.

Short-Term Synaptic Plasticity Mimicked on Ionic/Electronic Hybrid Oxide Synaptic Transistor Gated by Nanogranular SiO_2 Films

An indium-zinc-oxide （IZO） based ionic/electronic hybrid synaptic transistor gated by field-configurable nanogranular SiO2 films was reported. The devices exhibited a high current ON/OFF ratio of above 107, a high electron mobility of ～14 cm2 V^-1 s^-1 and a low subthreshold swing of ～80 mV/decade. The gate bias would modulate the interplay between protons and electrons at the channel/dielectric interface. Due to the dynamic modulation of the transient protons flux within the nanogranular SiO2 films, the channel current would be modified dynamically. Short-term synaptic plasticities, such as short-term potentiation and short- term depression, were mimicked on the proposed IZO synaptic transistor. The results indicate that the synaptic transistor proposed here has potential applications in future neuromorphic devices.

Neurogenesis dynamics in the olfactory bulb:deciphering circuitry organization, function, and adaptive plasticity

Adult neurogenesis persists after birth in the subventricular zone, with new neurons migrating to the granule cell layer and glomerular layers of the olfactory bulb, where they integrate into existing circuitry as inhibitory interneurons. The generation of these new neurons in the olfactory bulb supports both structural and functional plasticity, aiding in circuit remodeling triggered by memory and learning processes. However, the presence of these neurons, coupled with the cellular diversity within the olfactory bulb, presents an ongoing challenge in understanding its network organization and function. Moreover,the continuous integration of new neurons in the olfactory bulb plays a pivotal role in regulating olfactory information processing. This adaptive process responds to changes in epithelial composition and contributes to the formation of olfactory memories by modulating cellular connectivity within the olfactory bulb and interacting intricately with higher-order brain regions. The role of adult neurogenesis in olfactory bulb functions remains a topic of debate. Nevertheless, the functionality of the olfactory bulb is intricately linked to the organization of granule cells around mitral and tufted cells. This organizational pattern significantly impacts output, network behavior, and synaptic plasticity, which are crucial for olfactory perception and memory. Additionally, this organization is further shaped by axon terminals originating from cortical and subcortical regions. Despite the crucial role of olfactory bulb in brain functions and behaviors related to olfaction, these complex and highly interconnected processes have not been comprehensively studied as a whole. Therefore, this manuscript aims to discuss our current understanding and explore how neural plasticity and olfactory neurogenesis contribute to enhancing the adaptability of the olfactory system. These mechanisms are thought to support olfactory learning and memory, potentially through increased complexity and restructuring of neural network structures, as well as the addition of new granule granule cells that aid in olfactory adaptation. Additionally, the manuscript underscores the importance of employing precise methodologies to elucidate the specific roles of adult neurogenesis amidst conflicting data and varying experimental paradigms. Understanding these processes is essential for gaining insights into the complexities of olfactory function and behavior.

The interaction between KIF21A and KANK1 regulates dendritic morphology and synapse plasticity in neurons

Morphological alterations in dendritic spines have been linked to changes in functional communication between neurons that affect learning and memory.Kinesin-4 KIF21A helps organize the microtubule-actin network at the cell cortex by interacting with KANK1;however,whether KIF21A modulates dendritic structure and function in neurons remains unknown.In this study,we found that KIF21A was distributed in a subset of dendritic spines,and that these KIF21A-positive spines were larger and more structurally plastic than KIF21A-negative spines.Furthermore,the interaction between KIF21A and KANK1 was found to be critical for dendritic spine morphogenesis and synaptic plasticity.Knockdown of either KIF21A or KANK1 inhibited dendritic spine morphogenesis and dendritic branching,and these deficits were fully rescued by coexpressing full-length KIF21A or KANK1,but not by proteins with mutations disrupting direct binding between KIF21A and KANK1 or binding between KANK1 and talin1.Knocking down KIF21A in the hippocampus of rats inhibited the amplitudes of long-term potentiation induced by high-frequency stimulation and negatively impacted the animals’cognitive abilities.Taken together,our findings demonstrate the function of KIF21A in modulating spine morphology and provide insight into its role in synaptic function.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in Alzheimer’s disease:effects on neural and synaptic rehabilitation

Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease resulting from deficits in synaptic transmission and homeostasis.The Alzheimer’s disease brain tends to be hyperexcitable and hypersynchronized,thereby causing neurodegeneration and ultimately disrupting the operational abilities in daily life,leaving patients incapacitated.Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is a cost-effective,neuro-modulatory technique used for multiple neurological conditions.Over the past two decades,it has been widely used to predict cognitive decline;identify pathophysiological markers;promote neuroplasticity;and assess brain excitability,plasticity,and connectivity.It has also been applied to patients with dementia,because it can yield facilitatory effects on cognition and promote brain recovery after a neurological insult.However,its therapeutic effectiveness at the molecular and synaptic levels has not been elucidated because of a limited number of studies.This study aimed to characterize the neurobiological changes following repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment,evaluate its effects on synaptic plasticity,and identify the associated mechanisms.This review essentially focuses on changes in the pathology,amyloidogenesis,and clearance pathways,given that amyloid deposition is a major hypothesis in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease.Apoptotic mechanisms associated with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation procedures and different pathways mediating gene transcription,which are closely related to the neural regeneration process,are also highlighted.Finally,we discuss the outcomes of animal studies in which neuroplasticity is modulated and assessed at the structural and functional levels by using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation,with the aim to highlight future directions for better clinical translations.

Glutamate receptor delocalization in postsynaptic membrane and reduced hippocampal synaptic plasticity in the early stage of Alzheimer's disease

Mounting evidence suggests that synaptic plasticity provides the cellular biological basis of learning and memory, and plasticity deficits play a key role in dementia caused by Alzheimer's disease. However, the mechanisms by which synaptic dysfunction contributes to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease remain unclear. In the present study, Alzheimer's disease transgenic mice were used to determine the relationship between decreased hippocampal synaptic plasticity and pathological changes and cognitive-behavioral deterioration, as well as possible mechanisms underlying decreased synaptic plasticity in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease-like diseases. APP/PS1 double transgenic(5 XFAD; Jackson Laboratory) mice and their littermates(wild-type, controls) were used in this study. Additional 6-weekold and 10-week-old 5 XFAD mice and wild-type mice were used for electrophysiological recording of hippocampal dentate gyrus. For10-week-old 5 XFAD mice and wild-type mice, the left hippocampus was used for electrophysiological recording, and the right hippocampus was used for biochemical experiments or immunohistochemical staining to observe synaptophysin levels and amyloid beta deposition levels. The results revealed that, compared with wild-type mice, 6-week-old 5 XFAD mice exhibited unaltered long-term potentiation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. Another set of 5 XFAD mice began to show attenuation at the age of 10 weeks, and a large quantity of amyloid beta protein was accumulated in hippocampal cells. The location of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid receptor and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor subunits in synaptosomes was decreased. These findings indicate that the delocalization of postsynaptic glutamate receptors and an associated decline in synaptic plasticity may be key mechanisms in the early onset of Alzheimer's disease. The use and care of animals were in strict accordance with the ethical standards of the Animal Ethics Committee of Capital Medical University,China on December 17, 2015(approval No. AEEI-2015-182).

Microglia regulation of synaptic plasticity and learning and memory

Microglia are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system.Microglia possess varied morphologies and functions.Under normal physiological conditions,microglia mainly exist in a resting state and constantly monitor their microenvironment and survey neuronal and synaptic activity.Through the C1 q,C3 and CR3"Eat Me"and CD47 and SIRPα"Don't Eat Me"complement pathways,as well as other pathways such as CX3 CR1 signaling,resting microglia regulate synaptic pruning,a process crucial for the promotion of synapse formation and the regulation of neuronal activity and synaptic plasticity.By mediating synaptic pruning,resting microglia play an important role in the regulation of experience-dependent plasticity in the barrel cortex and visual cortex after whisker removal or monocular deprivation,and also in the regulation of learning and memory,including the modulation of memory strength,forgetfulness,and memory quality.As a response to brain injury,infection or neuroinflammation,microglia become activated and increase in number.Activated microglia change to an amoeboid shape,migrate to sites of inflammation and secrete proteins such as cytokines,chemokines and reactive oxygen species.These molecules released by microglia can lead to synaptic plasticity and learning and memory deficits associated with aging,Alzheimer's disease,traumatic brain injury,HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder,and other neurological or mental disorders such as autism,depression and post-traumatic stress disorder.With a focus mainly on recently published literature,here we reviewed the studies investigating the role of resting microglia in synaptic plasticity and learning and memory,as well as how activated microglia modulate disease-related plasticity and learning and memory deficits.By summarizing the function of microglia in these processes,we aim to provide an overview of microglia regulation of synaptic plasticity and learning and memory,and to discuss the possibility of microglia manipulation as a therapeutic to ameliorate cognitive deficits associated with aging,Alzheimer's disease,traumatic brain injury,HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder,and mental disorders.

Microwave Exposure Impairs Synaptic Plasticity in the Rat Hippocampus and PC12 Cells through Over-activation of the NMDA Receptor Signaling Pathway

Objective The aim of this study is to investigate whether microwave exposure would affect the N-methyI-D-aspartate receptor （NMDAR） signaling pathway to establish whether this plays a role in synaptic plasticity impairment. Methods 48 male Wistar rats were exposed to 30 mW/cm^2 microwave for 10 min every other day for three times. Hippocampal structure was observed through H＆E staining and transmission electron microscope. PC12 cells were exposed to 30 mW/cm^2 microwave for 5 min and the synapse morphology was visualized with scanning electron microscope and atomic force microscope. The release of amino acid neurotransmitters and calcium influx were detected. The expressions of several key NMDAR signaling molecules were evaluated. Results Microwave exposure caused injury in rat hippocampal structure and PC12 cells, especially the structure and quantity of synapses. The ratio of glutamic acid and gamma-aminobutyric acid neurotransmitters was increased and the intracellular calcium level was elevated in PC12 cells. A significant change in NMDAR subunits （NR1, NR2A, and NR2B） and related signaling molecules （CaZ＋/calmodulin-dependent kinase II gamma and phosphorylated cAMP-response element binding protein） were examined. Conclusion 30 mW/cm^2 microwave exposure resulted in alterations of synaptic structure, amino acid neurotransmitter release and calcium influx. NMDAR signaling molecules were closely associated with impaired synaptic plasticity.

An enriched environment promotes synaptic plasticity and cognitive recovery after permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice

Cerebral ischemia activates an endogenous repair program that induces plastic changes in neurons. In this study, we investigated the effects of environmental enrichment on spatial learning and memory as well as on synaptic remodeling in a mouse model of chronic cerebral ischemia, produced by subjecting adult male C57 BL/6 mice to permanent left middle cerebral artery occlusion. Three days postoperatively, mice were randomly assigned to the environmental enrichment and standard housing groups. Mice in the standard housing group were housed and fed a standard diet. Mice in the environmental enrichment group were housed in a cage with various toys and fed a standard diet. Then, 28 days postoperatively, spatial learning and memory were tested using the Morris water maze. The expression levels of growth-associated protein 43, synaptophysin and postsynaptic density protein 95 in the hippocampus were analyzed by western blot assay. The number of synapses was evaluated by electron microscopy. In the water maze test, mice in the environmental enrichment group had a shorter escape latency, traveled markedly longer distances, spent more time in the correct quadrant(northeast zone), and had a higher frequency of crossings compared with the standard housing group. The expression levels of growth-associated protein 43, synaptophysin and postsynaptic density protein 95 were substantially upregulated in the hippocampus in the environmental enrichment group compared with the standard housing group. Furthermore, electron microscopy revealed that environmental enrichment increased the number of synapses in the hippocampal CA1 region. Collectively, these findings suggest that environmental enrichment ameliorates the spatial learning and memory impairment induced by permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion. Environmental enrichment in mice with cerebral ischemia likely promotes cognitive recovery by inducing plastic changes in synapses.

Basic roles of key molecules connected with NMDAR signaling pathway on regulating learning and memory and synaptic plasticity

With key roles in essential brain functions ranging from the long-term potentiation(LTP) to synaptic plasticity,the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor(NMDAR) can be considered as one of the fundamental glutamate receptors in the central nervous system.The role of NMDA R was first identified in synaptic plasticity and has been extensively studied.Some molecules,such as Ca^(2+),postsynaptic density 95(PSD-95),calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II(Ca MK II),protein kinase A(PKA),mitogen-activated protein kinase(MAPK) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate(c AMP) responsive element binding protein(CREB),are of special importance in learning and memory.This review mainly focused on the new research of key molecules connected with learning and memory,which played important roles in the NMDAR signaling pathway.

Downregulation of caveolin-1 contributes to the synaptic plasticity deficit in the hippocampus of aged rats

Caveolin-1 is involved in the regulation of synaptic plasticity, but the relationship between its ex-pression and cognitive function during aging remains controversial. To explore the relationship be-tween synaptic plasticity in the aging process and changes in learning and memory, we examined caveolin-1 expression in the hippocampus, cortex and cerebellum of rats at different ages. We also examined the relationship between the expression of caveolin-1 and synaptophysin, a marker of synaptic plasticity. Hippocampal caveolin-1 and synaptophysin expression in aged （22-24 month old） rats was significantly lower than that in young （1 month old） and adult （4 months old） rats. Ex- pression levels of both proteins were significantly greater in the cortex of aged rats than in that of young or adult rats, and levels were similar between the three age groups in the cerebellum. Linear regression analysis revealed that hippocampal expression of synaptophysin was associated with memory and learning abilities. Moreover, synaptophysin expression correlated positively with caveolin-1 expression in the hippocampus, cortex and cerebellum. These results confirm that caveolin-1 has a regulatory effect on synaptic plasticity, and suggest that the downregulation of hippocampal caveolin-1 expression causes a decrease in synaptic plasticity during physiological aging.

Paired associative stimulation improves synaptic plasticity and functional outcomes after cerebral ischemia

Paired associative stimulation is a relatively new non-invasive brain stimulation technique that combines transcranial magnetic stimulation and peripheral nerve stimulation. The effects of paired associative stimulation on the excitability of the cerebral cortex can vary according to the time interval between the transcranial magnetic stimulation and peripheral nerve stimulation. We established a model of cerebral ischemia in rats via transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. We administered paired associative stimulation with a frequency of 0.05 Hz 90 times over 4 weeks. We then evaluated spatial learning and memory using the Morris water maze. Changes in the cerebral ultra-structure and synaptic plasticity were assessed via transmission electron microscopy and a 64-channel multi-electrode array. We measured mRNA and protein expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor 1 in the hippocampus using a real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot assay. Paired associative stimulation treatment significantly improved learning and memory in rats subjected to cerebral ischemia. The ultra-structures of synapses in the CA1 area of the hippocampus in rats subjected to cerebral ischemia were restored by paired associative stimulation. Long-term potentiation at synapses in the CA3 and CA1 regions of the hippocampus was enhanced as well. The protein and mRNA expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor 1 increased after paired associative stimulation treatment. These data indicate that paired associative stimulation can protect cog-nition after cerebral ischemia. The observed effect may be mediated by increases in the mRNA and protein expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor 1, and by enhanced synaptic plasticity in the CA1 area of the hippocampus. The animal experiments were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, China(approval No. TJ-A20151102) on July 11, 2015.

Correlation between the cumulative analgesic effect of electroacupuncture intervention and synaptic plasticity of hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus neurons in rats with sciatica

In the present study, a rat model of chronic neuropathic pain was established by ligation of the sciatic nerve and a model of learning and memory impairment was established by ovariectomy to investigate the analgesic effect of repeated electroacupuncture stimulation at bilateral Zusanfi （ST36） and Yanglingquan （GB34）. In addition, associated synaptic changes in neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus were examined. Results indicate that the thermal pain threshold （paw withdrawal latency） was significantly increased in rats subjected to 2-week electroacupuncture intervention compared with 2-day electroacupuncture, but the analgesic effect was weakened remarkably in ovariectomized rats with chronic constrictive injury. 2-week electroacupuncture intervention substantially reversed the chronic constrictive injury-induced increase in the synaptic cleft width and thinning of the postsynaptic density. These findings indicate that repeated electroacupuncture at bilateral Zusanfi and Yanglingquan has a cumulative analgesic effect and can effectively relieve chronic neuropathic pain by remodeling the synaptic structure of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus.

Correlation between synaptic plasticity, associated proteins, and rehabilitation training in a rat model of cerebral infarction

All motions provide sensory, motoric, and reflexive input to the central nervous system, as well as playing an important role in cerebral functional plasticity and compensation. Cerebral plasticity has become the theoretical basis of neurorehabilitation. Studies of cerebrovascular disease, in particular, demonstrate that regeneration is accompanied by multiple forms of plasticity, such as functional and structural, in different phases of stroke rehabilitation. This study was designed to measure synaptic plasticity and expression of associated proteins to analyze the effect of rehabilitation training on learning and memory in a rat model of cerebral infarction. Results suggest that rehabilitation training increases expression of nerve growth factor associated protein 43, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and neural cell adhesion molecules, and also promotes cerebral functional plasticity.

Grape Seed Proanthocyanidin Extract Ameliorates Streptozotocin-induced Cognitive and Synaptic Plasticity Deficits by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Preserving AKT and ERK Activities

Progressive memory loss and cognitive impairment are the main clinical manifestations of Alzheimer’s disease(AD).Currently,there is no effective drug available for the treatment of AD.Previous studies have demonstrated that the cognitive impairment of AD is associated with oxidative stress and the inhibition of AKT and ERK phosphorylation.Grape seed proanthocyanidin extract(GSPE)has been shown to have strong antioxidant effect and can protect the nervous system from oxidative stress damage.This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of GSPE on the cognitive and synaptic impairments of AD using a sporadic AD rat model induced by intracerebroventricular(ICV)injection of streptozotocin(STZ)(ICV-STZ).Rats were treated with GSPE(50,100,or 200 mg/kg every day)by intragastrical(ig.)administration for continuous 7 weeks,and ICV-STZ(3 mg/kg)was performed on the first day and third day of week 5.Learning and memory abilities were assessed by the Morris water maze(MWM)test at week 8.After behavioral test,hippocampal long-term potentiation(LTP)was recorded,and the levels of malondialdehyde(MDA),superoxide dismutases(SOD),glutathione(GSH)and the protein expression of AKT and ERK were measured in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex of rats.Our study revealed that ICV-STZ significantly impaired the working learning ability and hippocampal LTP of rats,significantly increased the levels of MDA,and decreased the activity of SOD and GSH in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex.In contrast,GSPE treatment prevented the impairment of cognitive function and hippocampal LTP induced by ICV-STZ,decreased the level of MDA,and increased the level of SOD and GSH.Furthermore,Western blot results showed that GSPE treatment could prevent the loss of AKT and ERK activities in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex induced by ICV-STZ.Our findings demonstrate that GSPE treatment could ameliorate the impairment of cognitive ability and hippocampal synaptic plasticity in a rat model of sporadic AD by inhibiting oxidative stress and preserving AKT and ERK activities.Therefore,GSPE may be an effective agent for the treatment of cognitive deficits associated with sporadic AD.

Cytokines,synaptic plasticity and network dynamics:a matter of balance

The modern view of the immune system as a sensitizing and modulating machinery of the central nervous system is now well recognized.However,the specific mechanisms underlying this fine crosstalk have yet to be fully disentangled.To control cognitive function and behavior,the two systems are engaged in a subtle interacting act.In this scenario,a dual action of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the modulation of brain network connections is emerging.Pro-inflammatory cytokines are indeed required to express physiological plasticity in the hippocampal network while being detrimental when over-expressed during uncontrolled inflammatory processes.In this dynamic equilibrium,synaptic functioning and the performance of neural networks are ensured by maintaining an appropriate balance between pro-and anti-inflammatory molecules in the central nervous system microenvironment.

Long-term potentiation-based screening identifies neuronal PYGM as a synaptic plasticity regulator participating in Alzheimer's disease

Synaptic dysfunction is an important pathological hallmark and cause of Alzheimer's disease(AD).High-frequency stimulation(HFS)-induced long-term potentiation(LTP)has been widely used to study synaptic plasticity,with impaired LTP found to be associated with AD.However,the exact molecular mechanism underlying synaptic plasticity has yet to be completely elucidated.Whether genes regulating synaptic plasticity are altered in AD and contribute to disease onset also remains unclear.Herein,we induced LTP in the hippocampal CA1 region of wildtype(WT)and AD model mice by administering HFS to the CA3 region and then studied transcriptome changes in the CA1 region.We identified 89 genes that may participate in normal synaptic plasticity by screening HFS-induced differentially expressed genes(DEGs)in mice with normal LTP,and 43 genes that may contribute to synaptic dysfunction in AD by comparing HFS-induced DEGs in mice with normal LTP and AD mice with impaired LTP.We further refined the 43 genes down to 14 by screening for genes with altered expression in pathological-stage AD mice without HFS induction.Among them,we found that the expression of Pygm,which catabolizes glycogen,was also decreased in AD patients.We further demonstrated that down-regulation of PYGM in neurons impaired synaptic plasticity and cognition in WT mice,while its overexpression attenuated synaptic dysfunction and cognitive deficits in AD mice.Moreover,we showed that PYGM directly regulated energy generation in neurons.Our study not only indicates that PYGM-mediated energy production in neurons plays an important role in synaptic function,but also provides a novel LTP-based strategy to systematically identify genes regulating synaptic plasticity under physiological and pathological conditions.

Abnormal synaptic plasticity and impaired cognition in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia(SCZ)is a severe mental illness that affects several brain domains with relation to cognition and behaviour.SCZ symptoms are typically classified into three categories,namely,positive,negative,and cognitive.The etiology of SCZ is thought to be multifactorial and poorly understood.Accumulating evidence has indicated abnormal synaptic plasticity and cognitive impairments in SCZ.Synaptic plasticity is thought to be induced at appropriate synapses during memory formation and has a critical role in the cognitive symptoms of SCZ.Many factors,including synaptic structure changes,aberrant expression of plasticityrelated genes,and abnormal synaptic transmission,may influence synaptic plasticity and play vital roles in SCZ.In this article,we briefly summarize the morphology of the synapse,the neurobiology of synaptic plasticity,and the role of synaptic plasticity,and review potential mechanisms underlying abnormal synaptic plasticity in SCZ.These abnormalities involve dendritic spines,postsynaptic density,and long-term potentiation-like plasticity.We also focus on cognitive dysfunction,which reflects impaired connectivity in SCZ.Additionally,the potential targets for the treatment of SCZ are discussed in this article.Therefore,understanding abnormal synaptic plasticity and impaired cognition in SCZ has an essential role in drug therapy.