Nanoparticles for targeted delivery of therapeutics and small interfering RNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) is the 5th most common malignancy which is responsible for more than half million annual mortalities; also, it is the third leading cause of cancer related death. Unfavorablesystemic side-effects of chemotherapeutic agents and susceptibility to the degradation of small interfering RNAs(si RNAs), which can knock down a specific gene involved in the disease, have hampered their clinical application. So, it could be beneficial to develop an efficient carrier for the stabilization and specific delivery of drugs and si RNA to cells. Targeted nanoparticles have gained considerable attention as an efficient drug and gene delivery system, which is due to their capability in achieving the highest accumulation of cytotoxic agents in tumor tissue, modifiable drug pharmacokinetic- and bio-distribution, improved effectiveness of treatment, and limited sideeffects. Recent studies have shed more light on the advantages of novel drug loaded carrier systems vs free drugs. Most of the animal studies have reported improvement in treatment efficacy and survival rate using novel carrier systems. Targeted delivery may be achieved passively or actively. In passive targeting, no ligand as homing device is used, while targeting is achieved by incorporating the therapeutic agent into a macromolecule or nanoparticle that passively reaches the target organ. However, in active targeting, the therapeutic agent or carrier system is conjugated to a tissue or cell-specific receptor which is overexpressed in a special malignancy using a ligand called a homing device. This review covers a broad spectrum of targeted nanoparticles as therapeutic and nonviral si RNA delivery systems, which are developed for enhanced cellular uptake and targeted gene silencing in vitro and in vivo and their characteristics and opportunities for the clinical applications of drugs and therapeutic si RNA are discussed in this article. Asialoglycoprotein receptors, low-density lipoprotein, ganglioside GM1 cell surface ligand, epidermal growth factor receptor receptors, monoclonal antibodies, retinoic acid receptors, integrin receptors targeted by Arg-Gly-Asp peptide, folate, and transferrin receptors are the most widely studied cell surface receptors which are used for the site specific delivery of drugs and si RNA-based therapeutics in HCC and discussed in detail in this article.

Therapeutic potential of small interfering RNAs/micro interfering RNA in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) is the predominant form of primary liver cancer and represents the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Current available therapeutic approaches are poorly effective,especially for the advanced forms of the disease. In the last year,short double stranded RNA molecules termed small interfering RNAs(si RNAs) and micro interfering RNAs(mi RNA),emerged as interesting molecules with potential therapeutic value for HCC. The practical use of these molecules is however limited by the identification of optimal molecular targets and especially by the lack of effective and targeted HCC delivery systems. Here we focus our discussion on the most recent advances in the identification of si RNAs/mi RNAs molecular targets and on the development of suitable si RNA/mi RNAs delivery systems.

Inhibition of genes expression of SARS coronavirus by synthetic small interfering RNAs

RNA interference (RNAi) is triggered by the presence of a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), and results in the silencing of homologous gene expression through the specific degradation of an mRNA containing the same sequence. dsRNAmediated RNAi can be used in a wide variety of eucaryotes to induce the sequence-specific inhibition of gene expression.Synthetic 21-23 nucleotide (nt) small interfering RNA (siRNA) with 2 nt 3' overhangs was recently found to mediate efficient sequence-specific mRNA degradation in mammalian cells. Here, we studied the effects of synthetic siRNA duplexes targeted to SARS coronavirus structural proteins E, M, and N in a cell culture system. Among total 26 siRNA duplexes, we obtained 3 siRNA duplexes which could sequence-specifically reduce target genes expression over 80％ at the concentration of 60 nM in Vero E6 cells. The downregulation effect was in correlation with the concentrations of the siRNA duplexes in a range of 0～60 nM. Our results also showed that many inactive siRNA duplexes may be brought to life simply by unpairing the 5' end of the antisense strands. Results suggest that siRNA is capable of inhibiting SARS coronavirus genes expression and thus may be a new therapeutic strategy for treatment of SARS.

Combination of small interfering RNAs mediates greater suppression on hepatitis B virus cccDNA in HepG2.2.15 cells

AIM： To observe the inhibition of hepatitis B virus （HBV） replication and expression in HepG2.2.15 cells by combination of small interfering RNAs （siRNAs）. METHODS： Recombinant plasmid psiI-HBV was constructed and transfected into HepG2.2.15 cells. At 48 h, 72 h and 96 h after transfection, culture media were collected and cells were harvested for HBV replication assay. HBsAg and HBeAg in the cell culture medium were detected by enzyme-linked immunoadsorbent assay （ELISA）. Intracellular viral DNA and covalently closed circular DNA （cccDNA） were quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction （PCR）. HBV viral mRNA was reverse transcribed and quantified by reverse-transcript PCR （RT-PCR）. RESULTS： siRNAs showed marked anti-HBV effects. siRNAs could specifically inhibit the expression of HBsAg and the replication of HBV DNA in a dosedependent manner. Furthermore, combination of siRNAs, compared with individual use of each siRNA, exerted a stronger inhibition on antigen expression and viral replication. More importantlycombination of siRNAs significantly suppressed HBV cccDNA amplification. CONCLUSION： Combination of siRNAs mediates a stronger inhibition on viral replication and antigenexpression in HepG2.2.15 cells, especially on cccDNA amplification.

Small interfering RNA targeting PGC-1α inhibits VEGF expression and tube formation in human retinal vascular endothelial cells

AIMTo determine whether small interfering RNA (siRNA) of PGC-1α could inhibit vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression and tube formation in human retinal vascular endothelial cells (hRVECs).METHODShRVECs transfected with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) siRNA were incubated for 24h and then placed into a normoxic (20%, O2) or hypoxic (1%, O2) environment for another 16h. PGC-1α mRNA and protein levels were detected by real-time PCR and Western blot. VEGF mRNA and protein levels were detected by real-time PCR and ELISA. Cell proliferation was evaluated by BrdU incorporation assay. Forty-eight hours after siRNA transfection, hRVECs were planted into Matrigel-coated plates and cultured under normoxic (20%, O2) or hypoxic (1%, O2) conditions for another 48h. The tube formation of hRVECs was observed under an optical microscope and quantified by counting the number of branch points and calculating the total tube length.RESULTSPGC-1α mRNA and protein levels were significantly reduced by PGC-1α siRNA, and VEGF mRNA and protein levels also decreased significantly. The percentage of BrdU-labeled cells in siPGC-1α groups were significantly decreased compared with control siRNA groups under normoxia and hypoxia in cell proliferation assay. In the tube formation assay, PGC-1α siRNA treated cells formed significantly fewer tubes.CONCLUSIONBlocking PGC-1α expression can inhibit VEGF expression in hRVECs and inhibit their ability to form tubes under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions.

KNOCKDOWN OF SURVIVIN EXPRESSION BY SMALL INTERFERING RNA SUPPRESSES PROLIFERATION OF TWO HUMAN CANCER CELL LINES

Objective To construct an expression vector of small interfering RNA （siRNA） against survivin and observe its effects on survivin expression and proliferation of human pancreatic cancer cell line PC-2 and breast cancer cell line MCF-7. Methods Constructed an expression vector of siRNA against survivin and transfected it into PC-2 and MCF-7 cells using lipofectamine^TM 2000. The expression of survivin was detected by semi-quanfifive RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry, and its effects on proliferation of PC-2 and MCF-7 cells were detected by MTT assay. Results The introduction of sequence-specific siRNA could efficiently suppress survivin expression at both mRNA and protein levels in the two cancer cell lines. In PC-2 cells, the expression inhibition rates were 81.25% at mRNA level and 74.24% at protein level In MCF-7 cells, the expression inhibition rates were 64.91% at mRNA level and 79. 72% at protein level The proliferation of PC-2 and MCF-7 cells was also suppressed, and24 and 48 hours after the cells were reseeded, the proliferation inhibition rates of PC-2 cells were 28. 00% and 33. 38%, and that of MCF-7 cells were 31.58% and 33.02%, respectively. Conclusions The expression vector of siRNA against survivin can block survivin expression in PC-2 and MCF-7 cells efficiently and specifically. Down regulation of survivin expression can suppress proliferation of PC-2 and MCF-7 cells. Survivin RNAi may have potential value in gene therapy of human cancers.

Progress of Targeting Transforming Growth Factor-β1 Small Interfering RNA in Liver Fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is a common pathological consequence of a variety of chronic stimuli, including viral, autoimmune, drug-induced, cholestatic and metabolic diseases. Fibrosis is driven by a dynamic process involving increased synthesis of matrix components and a failure of physiological mechanisms of matrix turnover. Activation of hepatic stellate cells(HSCs) remains a central event in fibrosis. HSCs are the main source of extracellular matrix(ECM). Transforming growth factor-beta(TGF-β), which is the fibrogenic master cytokine, can induce the activation of HSCs to produce a large amount of ECM, and is capable of inducing apoptosis of liver cells. RNA interference(RNAi) is a novel gene disruption technology. Studies have shown that small interfering RNA(si RNA) targeting TGF-β1 may inhibit the activation and proliferation of HSCs, suppress ECM synthesis and block liver fibrosis. TGF-β1 si RNA-mediated gene silencing therapy provides a new avenue for liver fibrosis. This review summarizes recent progresses in research on HSCs, TGF-β1 and TGF-β1 si RNA in liver fibrosis.

Impact of Bovine Skeletal Muscle Satellite Cell Differentiation by Small Interfering RNA Targeting Myogenin Gene

To examine the effect of myogenin gene on the differentiation of bovine skeletal muscle satellite cell, we constructed small interfering RNA plasmid vector to obtain myogenin knockdown bovine skeletal muscle cells, then used cell transfection, real time RCR and Western Blot to detect the influence of myogenin to cell differentiation. Results showed that the knockdown of myogenin significantly decreased its expression and other muscle-specific genes. Compared to the control, it could differentiate into few myotubes when challenged by low serum in the medium. These findings provided an important theoretical basis for further explore of the genetic mechanism in adult skeletal muscle, the remedy of muscle injuries and the cultivation of high-yield transgenic cattle.

Effects of Small Interfering RNATargeting Sphingosine Kinase-1 Gene on the Animal Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Summary： Alzheimer＇s disease （AD） is an age-related, progressive neurodegenerative disorder that occurs gradually and results in memory, behavior, and personality changes. Abnormal sphingolipid metabolism was reported in AD previously. This study aimed to investigate whether sphK1 could exacerbate the accumulation of amyloid protein （Aβ） and sharpen the learning and memory ability of the animal model of AD using siRNA interference. An adenovirus vector expressing small interfering RNA （siRNA） against the sphK1 gene （sphKl-siRNA） was designed, and the effects of sphKl-siRNA on the APP/PS1 mouse four weeks after treatment with sphKl-siRNA hippocampal injection were examined. SphK1 protein expression was confirmed by using Western blotting and ceramide content coupled with SIP secretion was evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay （ELISA）. Aβ load was detected by immunohistochemical staining and ELISA. Morris water maze was adopted to test the learning and memory ability of the APP/PS 1 mice. A significant difference in the expression of sphK1 protein and mRNA was observed between the siRNA group and the control group. Aβ load in transfected mice was accelerated in vivo, with significant aggravation of the learn- ing and memory ability. The sphKl gene modulation in the All load and the learning and memory ability in the animal model of AD may be important for the treatment of AD.

Silencing invariant chain of DCs enhances Th1 response using small interfering RNA

RNA interference(RNAi),which causes the degradation of any RNA in a sequence specific manner,is a posttranscriptional gene silencing mechanism.Targeting the invariant chain(Ii)in DCs has been used as an approach to enhance antitumor immunity.It is demonstrated in this article that transfection of H-2(K)DCs with siRNA specific for Ii gene can significantly knock down Ii.When exposed to TNF-alpha,immature DCs transfected with Ii siRNA can differentiate into mature DCs without reducing viability or IL-12p70 production.Ii siRNA-treated H-2(K)DCs exhibited an increased allostimulatory capacity in a lymphocyte proliferation assay.Furthermore,Ii siRNA-transfected H-2(K)DCs enhanced Th1 responses by increasing IFN-gamma and decreasing IL-4 production,and much stronger cytotoxic activity was observed when DCs were co-transfected with Ii siRNA and an endogenous tumor antigen in vitro.Our findings indicate that silencing the Ii gene in DCs with siRNA may offer a potential approach to enhancing antitumor immunotherapy.

The influence of small interfering RNA on the expression of Survivin in human glioma cells

Objective This study aims to investigate the feasibility of knockdown of Survivin gene with small interfering RNA and to observe the apoptosis in gliomas which is influenced by siRNA. Methods Survivin specific siRNA oligonucleotides were designed and synthesized artificially. This siRNA

siRNA纳米递送系统在类风湿性关节炎治疗中的研究进展

类风湿性关节炎是一种自身免疫性疾病,其病因复杂,目前尚未有很好的治疗方法,长期服用抗风湿药物也带来诸多副作用。RNA干扰技术是指通过外源性或内源性的双链RNA在体内诱导靶基因m RNA产生特异性降解,进而引起不同水平的基因沉默,具有高效、高特异性、低毒等优点,在生物医药领域有着巨大潜力。小干扰RNA(si RNA)作为RNA干扰技术的重要效应分子,在治疗类风湿关节炎方面具有巨大潜力。本文综述了siRNA递送系统用于治疗类风湿关节炎的最新研究进展,阐明了基于siRNA纳米给药系统治疗类风湿关节炎的优势,并展望了未来siRNA递送的发展方向。

小干扰RNA降血脂药英克司兰研究进展

英克司兰是一种新型的小干扰RNA降血脂药,通过靶向递送至肝脏,在肝细胞内特异性抑制前蛋白转化酶枯草溶菌素9的合成,从而降低低密度脂蛋白胆固醇水平。目前美国食品药品监督管理局和国家药品监督管理局已经正式批准英克司兰上市。现从英克司兰的作用机制、临床应用有效性及安全性等方面进行综述,以期为降脂治疗提供参考。

Small RNA Interference-mediated Gene Silencing of TREK-1 Potassium Channel in Cultured Astrocytes

This study was aimed to examine the effect of TREK-1 silencing on the function of astrocytes. Three 21-nucleotide small interfering RNA (siRNA) duplexes (siT1, siT2, siT3) targeting TREK-1 were constructed. Cy3-labeled dsRNA oligmers were used to determine the transfection efficiency in cultured astrocytes. TREK-1-specific siRNA duplexes (siT1, siT2, siT3) at the optimal concentration were transfected into cultured astrocytes, and the most efficient siRNA was identified by the method of immunocytochemical staining and Western blotting. The proliferation of astrocytes tranfected with TREK-1-targeting siRNA under hypoxia condition was measured by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). The results showed that TREK-1 was expressed in cultured astrocytes. The dsRNA oligmers targeting TREK-1 could be transfected efficiently in cultured astrocytes and down-regulate the expression of TREK-1 in astrocytes. Moreover, the down-regulation of TREK-1 in astrocytes contributed to the proliferation of astrocytes under hypoxia condition as determined by cell cycle analysis. It was concluded that siRNA is a powerful technique that can be used to knockdown the expression of TREK-1 in astrocytes, which helps further investigate the function of TREK-1 channel in astrocytes under physicological and pathological condition.

小干扰RNA降脂药物英克司兰在心血管疾病中的研究进展

动脉粥样硬化性心血管疾病(ASCVD)是中国城乡居民死亡的第一位原因。动脉粥样硬化是一种慢性炎症性血管病变,也是ASCVD的病变基础,其主要原因是脂质代谢障碍,故降低低密度脂蛋白胆固醇成为防治ASCVD的重要手段。小干扰RNA是一类新型降血脂药。目前,针对该类药物的循证证据和实践经验较少。首个小干扰RNA降脂药物英克司兰于2023年8月在中国获批上市。现介绍英克司兰治疗动脉粥样硬化的机制、与其他降脂药物合用的情况,以及其安全性和不良反应,以期为此类药物的临床应用提供参考。

siRNA非病毒载体递送用于肿瘤治疗的研究进展

近年来基于RNA干扰(RNA interference,RNAi)的基因治疗技术在肿瘤治疗方面引起广泛关注。在常规药物治疗无效的情况下,RNAi为癌症患者带来了新的希望。但是,由于小分子干扰RNA(small interfering RNA,siRNA)在体内存在易降解、难递送等问题,极大地限制了其临床转化潜力。纳米载体以其独特的尺寸效应和多样的修饰策略,能够介导高效、靶向的RNA递送,以实现其基因沉默。本文综述了RNAi在基因治疗中的作用机制以及体内递送siRNA的不同载体,介绍了载体体内递送siRNA的主要障碍和作用靶点,并比较了不同载体在siRNA递送中的优势和不足,为新载体的设计提供借鉴,推动RNA干扰疗法向临床的转化。

采用GFP标记筛选抑制多血清型口蹄疫病毒3C基因表达的siRNA

为筛选出可抑制多种血清型口蹄疫病毒(FMDV)的小干扰RNA(siRNA),本试验通过多血清型口蹄疫病毒序列比对与siRNA设计分析,筛选出潜在抗多血清型siRNA位点;通过体外合成A型、O型和Asia I型病毒部分基因序列,制备绿色荧光蛋白(GPF)基因融合表达载体;将化学合成的siRNA与融合表达载体共转染,通过GFP观察、Western blot和实时荧光定量反转录PCR(qRT-PCR)方法检验目标siRNA对融合基因的抑制效率。生物信息分析发现,多血清型口蹄疫病毒3C基因高度保守并存在潜在siRNA作用靶位,GFP-3C融合表达载体成功构建,与化学合成的siRNA1-3C共转染293T细胞,GFP观察发现,siRNA1-3C可有效抑制来源于A型、O型和Asia I型3C基因的GFP-3C荧光信号且持续时间达72 h,Western blot检测证实此结果。qRT-PCR检测发现,siRNA1-3C对3个GFP-3C融合基因转录水平抑制效率超85%,且作用可维持72 h。本试验利用GFP作为筛选标记成功筛选出1个作用于FMDV 3C基因的siRNA,为开发多血清型口蹄疫抑制剂提供参考依据。

HMGB1小干扰RNA对鼻黏膜上皮细胞HMGB1/TLR4信号通路的影响

目的研究采用小干扰RNA(si-RNA)沉默高迁移率族蛋白1(HMGB1)对人鼻黏膜上皮细胞(HNECs)Toll样受体4(TLR4)及其下游信号通路的影响。方法体外培养人鼻黏膜上皮细胞,分为空白对照组、si-HMGB1组、脂多糖(LPS)组和LPS+si-HMGB1组。RT-PCR检测HNECs中HMGB1 mRNA的表达。Western blot检测4组细胞HMGB1、TLR4表达以及通路下游核因子-κB(NF-κB)和白介素1β(IL-1β)的表达水平。观察siRNA干扰HMGB1蛋白表达后鼻黏膜上皮细胞的相应变化。结果RT-PCR结果显示,LPS组细胞中HMGB1的转录水平显著高于空白对照组(P<0.05)。LPS+si-HMGB1组HMGB1的mRNA转录水平显著低于LPS组(P<0.05)。Western blot检测结果显示,LPS+si-HMGB1组的TLR4,HMGB1蛋白表达水平明显低于LPS组,结果具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。LPS+si-HMGB1组细胞的NF-κB以及IL-1β水平明显低于LPS组(P<0.05)。结论鼻黏膜上皮细胞表达HMGB1蛋白,通过siRNA沉默手段可以下调HMGB1的表达。LPS可以激活炎症性的HMGB1,TLR4,通路下游信号NF-κB及IL-1β。siRNA可以下调HMGB1蛋白表达水平,进而抑制TLR4-NF-κB以及IL-1β信号传导通路。

Exosome-based small RNA delivery:Progress and prospects

RNA interfering(RNAi), mediated by small interfering RNAs and microRNAs, is currently one of the most promising tools of gene therapy. Small RNAs are capable of inducing specific post-transcriptional gene silencing, providing a potentially effective platform for the treatment of a wide array of diseases. However, similar to other nucleic acid-based drugs,the major hurdle of RNAi therapy is lack of efficient and non-immunogenic delivery vehicles. Currently, viruses, synthetic polymers, and lipid-based carriers are among the most widely studied vehicles for small RNA delivery. However, many drawbacks are reported to be associated with these delivery vehicles. There is a pressing need to replace them with more efficient and better-tolerated approaches. Exosomes secreted from the endocytic compartment of live cells, are a subtype of endogenous extracellular vesicles that transfer genetic and biochemical information among different cells, thus playing an important role in cellcell communication. Recently, accumulating attention has been focused on harnessing exosomes as nanaocarriers for small RNAs delivery. Due to their natural role in shuttling endogenous nucleic acid in our body, exosomes may exhibit higher delivery efficiency, lower immunogenicity, and better compatibility than existing foreign RNA carriers. Importantly,exosomes own intrinsic homing capacity that can guide small RNAs across natural membranous barriers. Moreover, such a capacity can be further improved by adding appropriate targeting moieties. In this manuscript, we briefly review the progress and challenges of RNAi therapy, and discuss the potential of exosomes' applications in small RNA delivery with focus on the most recent advances in exosome-based small RNA delivery for disease therapy.

Suppression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 via RNA interference inhibits pancreatic carcinoma cell invasiveness and adhesion

AIM:To investigate the inhibitory effects of RNA interference (RNAi) on expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) gene and invasiveness and adhesion of human pancreatic cancer cell line,BxPC-3.METHODS:RNAi was performed using the vector (pGPU6)-based small interference RNA (siRNA) plasmid gene silence system to specifically knock down MMP-2 expression in pancreatic cancer cell line,BxPC-3. Four groups of different specific target sequence in coding region of MMP-2 and one non-specific sequence were chosen to construct four experimental siRNA plasmids of pGPU6-1,pGPU6-2,pGPU6-3 and pGPU6-4,and one negative control siRNA plasmid of pGPU6 (-). MMP-2 expression was measured by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot. Cell proliferation and apoptosis were examined by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) and flow cytometry,respectively. The abilities of adhesion and invasion were detected by cell adhesion assay and cell invasion assay using Transwell chambers.RESULTS:The expression of MMP-2 was inhibited and the inhibitory effects of different sequence varied. pGPU6-1 group had the most efficient inhibitory effect,followed by pGPU6-2 and pGPU6-3 groups.Invasiveness and adhesion were more significantly reduced in pGPU6-1,pGPU6-2 and pGPU6-3 groups as compared with pGPU6 (-) and blank control groups. However,no difference concerning cell proliferation and apoptosis was observed after transfection between experiment groups and control groups.CONCLUSION:RNAi against MMP-2 successfully inhibited the mRNA and protein expression of MMP-2 in the pancreatic cancer cell line,BxPC-3,leading to a potent suppression of tumor cell adhesion and invasion without affecting cell proliferation and apoptosis. These findings suggest that the RNAi approach towards MMP-2 may be an effective therapeutic strategy for the clinical management of pancreatic tumor.