Improvement of a Snow Albedo Parameterization in the Snow–Atmosphere–Soil Transfer Model:Evaluation of Impacts of Aerosol on Seasonal Snow Cover

The presence of light-absorbing aerosols （LAA） in snow profoundly influence the surface energy balance and water budget. However, most snow-process schemes in land-surface and climate models currently do not take this into consider- ation. To better represent the snow process and to evaluate the impacts of LAA on snow, this study presents an improved snow albedo parameterization in the Snow-Atmosphere-Soil on snow. Specifically, the Snow, Ice and Aerosol Radiation Transfer （SAST） model, which includes the impacts of LAA （SNICAR） model is incorporated into the SAST model with an LAA mass stratigraphy scheme. The new coupled model is validated against in-situ measurements at the Swamp Angel Study Plot （SASP）, Colorado, USA. Results show that the snow albedo and snow depth are better reproduced than those in the original SAST, particularly during the period of snow ablation. Furthermore, the impacts of LAA on snow are esti- mated in the coupled model through case comparisons of the snowpack, with or without LAA. The LAA particles directly absorb extra solar radiation, which accelerates the growth rate of the snow grain size. Meanwhile, these larger snow particles favor more radiative absorption. The average total radiative forcing of the LAA at the SASP is 47.5 W m-2. This extra radiative absorption enhances the snowmelt rate. As a result, the peak runoff time and ＂snow all gone＂ day have shifted 18 and 19.5 days earlier, respectively, which could further impose substantial impacts on the hydrologic cycle and atmospheric processes.

Role of Black Carbon-Induced Changes in Snow Albedo in Predictions of Temperature and Precipitation during a Snowstorm

In this study the authors apply the chemistry version of the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF-Chem) to examine the impacts of black carbon (BC)-induced changes in snow albedo on simulated tem-perature and precipitation during the severe snowstorm that occurred in southern China during 0800 26 January to 0800 29 January 2008 (Note that all times are local time except when otherwise stated).Black carbon aerosol was simulated online within the WRF-Chem.The model re-sults showed that surface-albedo,averaged over 27 28 January,can be reduced by up to 10% by the deposition of BC.As a result,relative to a simulation that does not con-sider deposition of BC on snow/ice,the authors predicted surface air temperatures during 27 28 January can differ by 1.95 to 2.70 K,and the authors predicted accumu-lated precipitation over 27 28 January can differ by 2.91 to 3.10 mm over Areas A and B with large BC deposition.Different signs of changes are determined by the feedback of clouds and by the availability of water vapor in the atmosphere.

Snow Albedo's Dependence on Solar Zenith Angle from In Situ and MODIS Data

Since snow cover is one of the fastest modifications to the land surface albedo, the treatment of snow-covered surface albedo is important for the simulation of land processes in weather and climate models. A simple formulation is developed here to represent the solar zenith angle (SZA) dependence of albedo under maximum snow cover condition on the basis of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) algorithm. The SZA dependence of black-sky (or direct) albedo is weaker under snow condition than that under snow-free condition, and it does not differ much among different vegetation types. The blue-sky albedo (or combined albedo from direct and diffuse radiations) based on the above formulation and in situ diffuse ratio of solar radiation is consistent with in situ data from two Canadian sites (grassland and evergreen needleleaf forest) and one U.S. grassland site. In particular, the SZA dependence of bluesky snow albedo is almost always weak because of high diffuse ratios for high SZA in winter. With the snow albedo formulation from this study and snow-free albedo formulations from the authors' previous studies, albedos with partial snow cover can be obtained as the snow frac- tion-weighted average of snow and snow-free albedos.

An observational study of snow aging and the seasonal variation of snow albedo by using data from Col de Porte, France

An 18-year long(1993–2011) comprehensive dataset of snow and meteorological variables from Col de Porte, France is used to analyze the variation of shortwave broadband albedo with elapsed time after snowfalls(snow aging) during each snow season. The effects of air temperature, snow surface temperature and snow depth on snow albedo are investigated. An index based on the accumulation of air temperature over several consecutive days with daily mean higher than 2.5 °C is proposed to divide each snow-covered period into a dry and the following wet snow season when this index reaches 18 °C.The results indicate that snow surface albedo decreases exponentially with time in both dry and wet snow seasons.Snow albedo reduction with snow aging is small at low surface temperature and the reduction rate increases with the rise of surface temperature. However, the reduction rate is widely scattered within the observed range of temperature, implying a loose relationship between snow albedo and snow surface temperature. Snow albedo in wet snowseason is generally smaller and decreases faster than in dry snow season. For Col de Porte site, snow depths to effectively mask the underlying surface are 21 and 33 cm in dry and wet snow season respectively.

Significant Variations of Surface Albedo during a Snowy Period at Xianghe Observatory,China

Surface albedo over typical types of surfaces in the North China Plain was observed using a Multi-field Albedo Observation System before and after several snowfalls from 13 to 27 February 2005. Dramatic variations of the surface albedos of bare land, a frozen pond, and withered grassland during that period were analyzed. Under cloudy sky, the mean surface albedo of bare land was about 0.23, but it immediately rose to 0.85 when the surface was covered by fresh snow. The albedo decreased gradually to normal levels afterwards. The melting processes were different depending on the characteristics of the underlying surfaces. For example, over grassland the surface albedo was relatively lower after snowfall, and as a result, more solar energy could be absorbed and consequently the snow melting process was accelerated. Significant variations of surface albedo cannot be easily captured by satellite observations; therefore, detailed measurements of surface albedo and related parameters are essential for determining the impact of snow on the energy budget of the Earth.

Relationship between the Concentration of Impurity and Albedo in Snow Surface

Recent decline of cryosphere typified by retreat of glaciers is often explained by temperature rise due to global warming. However, the existence of glaciers shrinking since before 1950s warming accelerated suggested that decline of cryosphere may be due to not only temperature rise, but also another possibility. As a possible cause of snow and ice melting, it has been pointed out that the surface albedo reduction due to increase of snow impurity, aeolian dust and anthropogenic pollutant, for example. To clarify the quantitative relationship between albedo and impurity in snow surface, we investigated the correlativity of turbidity and metal concentration in snow to the snow surface albedo from the simultaneous observations on the snow-covered area in Yamagata, Japan. The observed albedo shows a tendency of decrease with the turbidity increase in snow surface, we could find strong correlation between the albedo and the turbidity in 76% of contribution factor using logarithmic regression analysis. The relationship of albedo to total concentration of Fe and Al in snow surface shows the similar tendency to turbidity, we could model the relationship using logarithmic equation with high value of contribution ratio, 74% and 66%, respectively. The concentration ratio of Fe/Al is nearly constant with about 0.75, which is close to mean crustal ratio of both elements, therefore, it can be said there is a strong correlation between the albedo and the concentration of mineral particle in snow surface. We cannot find a significant correlation between the albedo and total concentration of Na in snow surface. It can be considered that Na existed as dissolved ion has not significant effect to the albedo in snow surface. These results indicate that the snow albedo correlates strongly with the particulate matter in snow surface, which is typified by mineral particle.

Estimate the influence of snow grain size and black carbon on albedo

Estimation of the influence of snow grain size and black carbon on albedo is essential in obtaining the accurate albedo. In this paper, field measurement data, including snow grain size, snow depth and density was obtained. Black carbon samples were collected from the snow surface. A simultaneous observation using Analytical Spectral Devices was employed in the Qiyi Glacier located in the Qilian Mountain. Analytical Spectral Devices spectrum data were used to analyze spectral re- flectance of snow for different grain size and black carbon content. The measurements were compared with the results obtained from the Snow, Ice, and Aerosol Radiation model, and the simulation was found to correlate well with the ob- served data. However, the simulated albedo was near to 0.98 times of the measured albedo, so the other factors were as- sumed to be constant using the corrected Snow, Ice, and Aerosol Radiation model to estimate the influence of measured snow grain size and black carbon on albedo. Field measurements were controlled to fit the relationship between the snow grain size and black carbon in order to estimate the influence of these factors on the snow albedo.

Numerical Simulation of Sensitivities of Snow Melting to Spectral Composition of the Incoming Solar Radiation

Snow albedo is an important factor influencing the snow surface energy budget and snow melting, yet uncertainties remain in the calculation of spectrally resolved snow surface albedo because the spectral composition （visible versus near infrared） of the incident solar radiation is seldom available. The influence of the spectral composition of the incoming solar radiation on the snow surface albedo, snow surface energy budget, and final snow ablation is investigated through sensitivity experiments of four snow seasons at two open sites in the Alps by using a multi-layer Snow-Atmosphere-Soil-Transfer scheme （SAST）. Since the snow albedo in the near infrared （NIR） spectral band is significantly lower than that in the visible （VIS） band, and almost the entire NIR part of the solar radiation is absorbed in the top layer of the snow pack, given a fixed amount of incoming solar radiation, a lower VIS/NIR ratio implies that more NIR radiation is reaching the ground surface and more is absorbed by the top layer of the snow pack, therefore, speeding up the snow melting and increasing the surface runoff, although a lesser part of the solar radiation in the visible band is transmitted into and trapped by the sub-layer of the snow pack. The above VIS/NIR ratio effect of the incoming solar radiation can result in a couple of days difference in the timing of snow ablation and it becomes more significant in late spring when the total solar radiation is intensified with seasonal evolution. Snow aging also slightly intensifies this VIS/NIR ratio effect.

Light-absorbing impurities on Keqikaer Glacier in western Tien Shan: concentrations and potential impact on albedo reduction

Light-absorbing impurities on glaciers are important factors that influence glacial surface albedo and accelerate glacier melt. In this study, the quantity of light-absorbing impurities on Keqikaer Glacier in western Tien Shan, Central Asia, was measured. We found that the average concentrations of black carbon was 2,180 ng/g, with a range from 250 ng/g to more than 10,000 ng/g. The average concentrations of organic carbon and mineral dust were 1,738 ng/g and 194 μg/g, respectively. Based on simulations performed with the Snow Ice Aerosol Radiative model simulations, black carbon and dust are responsible for approximately 64% and 9%, respectively, of the albedo reduction, and are associated with instantaneous radiative forcing of 323.18 W/m2(ranging from 142.16 to 619.25 W/m2) and 24.05 W/m2(ranging from 0.15 to69.77 W/m2), respectively. For different scenarios, the albedo and radiative forcing effect of black carbon is considerably greater than that of dust. The estimated radiative forcing at Keqikaer Glacier is higher than most similar values estimated by previous studies on the Tibetan Plateau, perhaps as a result of black carbon enrichment by melt scavenging. Light-absorbing impurities deposited on Keqikaer Glacier appear to mainly originate from central Asia, Siberia, western China(including the Taklimakan Desert) and parts of South Asia in summer, and from the Middle East and Central Asia in winter.A footprint analysis indicates that a large fraction(>60%) of the black carbon contributions on Keqikaer Glacier comes from anthropogenic sources. These results provide a scientific basis for regional mitigation efforts to reduce black carbon.

Light-absorbing Particles in Snow and Ice: Measurement and Modeling of Climatic and Hydrological impact

Light absorbing particles（LAP, e.g., black carbon, brown carbon, and dust） influence water and energy budgets of the atmosphere and snowpack in multiple ways. In addition to their effects associated with atmospheric heating by absorption of solar radiation and interactions with clouds, LAP in snow on land and ice can reduce the surface reflectance（a.k.a., surface darkening）, which is likely to accelerate the snow aging process and further reduces snow albedo and increases the speed of snowpack melt. LAP in snow and ice（LAPSI） has been identified as one of major forcings affecting climate change, e.g.in the fourth and fifth assessment reports of IPCC. However, the uncertainty level in quantifying this effect remains very high. In this review paper, we document various technical methods of measuring LAPSI and review the progress made in measuring the LAPSI in Arctic, Tibetan Plateau and other mid-latitude regions. We also report the progress in modeling the mass concentrations, albedo reduction, radiative forcing, and climatic and hydrological impact of LAPSI at global and regional scales. Finally we identify some research needs for reducing the uncertainties in the impact of LAPSI on global and regional climate and the hydrological cycle.

基于MODIS的长江源近10年积雪反照率时空分布及动态变化

利用EOS-MODIS卫星的积雪反照率数据和一元线性回归法分析2001-2010年长江源区积雪反照率的分布及变化趋势。结果表明：①长江源区积雪季积雪反照率空间分布差异大。冰川区是积雪反照率高值中心（0.67-0.91）,长江源东部地区是低值中心（0.15-0.48）。②积雪反照率空间分布四季变化明显,峰值出现在次年1月份。③长江源区近10 a积雪季平均积雪反照率在高海拔区和冰川区增大比较显著（0.001 2/a）。与积雪面积和积雪季降雪量变化呈显著正相关;而源区夏季各月积雪反照率有明显降低趋势,与夏季温度的变暖趋势呈正反馈关系。

积雪对玛曲局地微气象特征影响的观测研究

利用2011年12月至2012年3月中国科学院黄河源区气候与环境综合观测研究站提供的玛曲站的观测资料,通过对比分析三次积雪过程及其前期无雪时的近地层气象要素特征,研究了积雪对大气温度层结特征的影响。观测结果表明:降雪前降温较快,由冷空气过境引发的降雪过程可使2.35 m高处日最高、最低气温24 h降低10℃,雪后气温回升较慢,平均速率为2.5℃·d^(-1)。温度梯度值白天为负值、夜晚为正值,7.17 m以下温度梯度绝对值较大,平均为0.4℃·m^(-1),7.17~18.15 m温度梯度绝对值较小,其值不足0.2℃·m^(-1),到18.15 m绝对值减小到0.05℃·m^(-1);当地表有积雪覆盖时,早上温度随高度减小的变化趋势出现时间比无雪覆盖时落后1 h,傍晚温度随高度增大的变化趋势较之提前1 h出现。积雪可减小白天气温分布范围,第二次积雪过程由于风速较大减小较明显。除晴天11:00—16:00 4.2~7.17 m,积雪存在将减小各层温度梯度绝对值;晴天11:00—16:00 4.2~7.17 m温度梯度绝对值比2.35~4.2 m偏大,当有积雪覆盖时偏大幅度明显增大,出现这种异常主要是受4.2 m偏暖的影响,这种偏暖现象可能是由观测场内外下垫面植被覆盖不同而引起的温度平流所致,当风速较大时,将破坏这种平流作用,不同高度温度趋于一致。

祁连山区MODIS积雪反照率产品的精度验证及云下积雪反照率估算研究

积雪反照率在全球气候和能量收支平衡模型中起着重要的作用.利用祁连山地区大冬树垭口站点反照率实测数据对由TM/ETM+得到的反照率数据进行标定,然后将TM/ETM+反照率数据通过升尺度对MODIS逐日积雪反照率(SAD)产品在晴空条件下的精度进行了验证.同时,发展了一个基于MODIS SAD与AMSR-E SWE数据融合并结合Noah积雪反照率参数化方案估算MODIS SAD数据云下积雪反照率的算法,通过统计分析纠正了云对积雪反照率的影响,对云下积雪反照率进行了验证分析.结果表明:MODIS SAD产品在祁连山地区的精度要低于大面积积雪覆盖的平坦地区(如格陵兰岛),其平均绝对误差及均方根误差分别为0.0548和0.0727;云下积雪反照率估算方法可以有效地获取云覆盖下积雪像元的反照率值,纠正后的无云MODIS SAD数据与地面观测值有较好的一致性,其平均绝对误差为0.078.

积雪分布及其对中国气候影响的研究进展

对北半球不同地区的积雪分布状况、积雪异常影响中国气候的事实以及影响机理等问题的研究成果进行了较系统的回顾与总结。青藏高原、蒙古高原、欧洲阿尔卑斯山脉及北美中西部是北半球积雪分布的关键区,其中青藏高原是北半球积雪异常变化最强烈的区域。中国积雪分布范围广泛,其中新疆、东北和青藏高原是3个大值区。总体来看,北半球积雪有减少的趋势,而中国积雪却有弱的增加趋势。冬、春季高原积雪与欧亚积雪对中国夏季降水的影响是相反的。积雪影响中国气候的机理解释为:冬季积雪反照率效应起主要作用,春夏季积雪水文效应起主要作用。积雪被视为中国短期气候预测的一个重要物理因子,继续加强该领域的研究对于提高中国短期气候预测的准确率将有重要意义。

欧亚大陆积雪两种物理效应对2010年春末夏初华南降水的影响

本文基于欧亚大陆积雪深度资料和中国台站降水资料的奇异值分析(SVD)结果,使用大气环流模式(CAM3.1)分别进行三组集合试验来研究欧亚大陆积雪的反照率效应和水文效应对2010年5～6月华南降水的影响:第一组试验综合考虑积雪的两种物理效应,既有反照率效应又有水文效应;第二组试验仅考虑积雪反照率效应,忽略水文效应;第三组试验只考虑积雪水文效应,忽略反照率效应。试验结果表明,积雪的两种物理效应都会对后期华南降水产生影响,但是三组试验中积雪不同物理效应所导致的异常幅度和范围存在较大差异,其中积雪水文效应比反照率效应引起的变化幅度大。当两种效应共同作用时产生的异常与统计分析结果最为接近,变化幅度也最大,但是并不等于单纯反照率效应和单纯水文效应作用之和。

青藏高原积雪的分布特征及其对地面反照率的影响

通过对１９８３年７月至１９９０年６月青藏高原主体５８个格点积雪资料进行ＥＯＦ分析发现，青藏高原主体积雪分布以西部兴都库什山脉、天山山脉以及南部喜马拉雅山脉为主；高原中部唐古拉山脉、北部昆仑山脉和东部巴颜喀拉山脉的积雪相对较少。青藏高原西部、南部的积雪变化与中部、北部和东部的积雪变化趋势存在反位相关系。另外，本文还对积雪对高原地面反照率的影响作了简单分析。

青海高原季节性降雪中的黑碳气溶胶

对青海高原2012年季节性降雪进行采集.6个采样点集中在青海高原东南部地区,共包括36袋雪样.从分析结果可知,青海高原东南部地区季节性降雪中含有较多的沙尘,滤膜颜色多为土黄色.6个采样点雪中的黑碳浓度为（184±123）ng/g,表层雪的黑碳浓度范围是59~238ng/g,平均值为152ng/g.通过后向轨迹聚类分析知道气流主要来自南亚和青藏高原地区,有少部分是来自塔克拉玛干沙漠和戈壁地区.

水冰雪反照率参数化通用模型

对于气候寒冷、降雪频繁的冰封河湖,冰盖和雪盖的反照率对气候和冰厚变化有很大影响。应用Fresnel理论得出纯水和纯水冰可用相同反照率公式计算的结论。基于现有的原型观测资料,提出了水冰反照率参数化通用模型。在此基础上,借鉴CCSM3雪冰日平均反照率参数化模型,提出了水冰雪反照率参数化通用模型。该模型考虑了纬度及地球自转和环绕太阳运行的规律,具有很好的普适性。计算分析表明,纬度和日期对水冰雪日平均反照率有很大影响,反照率大小随日期或月份变化,纬度越高,反照率越大。与冰厚对反照率的影响相比,太阳高度角随纬度和日期变化产生的影响大得多。水冰雪反照率参数化通用模型计算结果与原型观测结果的对比证明,两者吻合较好,而现有常用以冰厚为依据的反照率模型计算结果远远偏离观测结果。

积雪大尺度气候效应综述

本文综述了积雪大尺度气候效应研究在相关分析、天气气候学诊断以及数值模拟等方面取得的重要进展。评论了前人研究中存在的主要问题。强调指出准确而详尽的积雪空间分布、季节变化与年际波动是揭示积雪对气候影响物理机制所必不可缺少的。向欧亚大陆或青藏高原积雪可对东亚季风产生持续性影响这一被广泛接受的看法提出了挑战。全球海气异常,东亚季风和欧亚大陆积雪之间的相互关系,有待用真实的积雪变化做进一步探讨。

2010年春季南极固定冰反照率变化特征及其影响因子

2010年春季至夏季在中山站附近的固定冰面开展了固定冰反照率观测.在春夏过渡期,观测期间的表面反照率呈下降趋势,平均反照率从9月的0.80下降到12月的0.62,整个观测期间的平均值为0.70.雪厚是影响反照率变化的重要因子,融化前期的反照率受表面温度影响较大,干雪期反照率对表面温度并不敏感.降雪可通过增加表面雪厚和减小表面积雪粒径显著增加反照率,云层则可通过吸收入射太阳光中的近红外波段增加反照率,降雪和阴天反照率可比晴天观测平均增加0.18和0.06;吹雪则可通过改变积雪光学厚度导致反照率发生显著变化.受太阳天顶角变化和积雪变性的共同影响,晴天或少云时的反照率在上午随太阳天顶角呈准线性递减,下午则几乎不发生变化;最高值、最低值分别出现在凌晨和下午.本文提出了一组分别表述厚干雪、薄干雪和湿雪反照率日变化的参数化方案,通过太阳天顶角的线性函数隐式考虑进了积雪变性的影响.相比常数反照率方案,该参数化方案能有效提高对反照率日变化的估算能力.