Typical Soft–Sediment Deformation Structures Induced by Freeze/Thaw Cycles: A Case Study of Quaternary Alluvial Deposits in the Northern Qiangtang Basin, Tibetan Plateau

With the objective of establishing a distinction between deformation structures caused by freeze/thaw cycles and those resulting from seismic activity, we studied three well–exposed alluvial deposits in a section at Dogai Coring, northern Qiangtang Basin, Tibetan Plateau. Deformation is present in the form of plastic structures(diapirs, folds and clastic dykes), brittle structures(micro–faults) and cryogenic wedges. These soft–sediment deformation features(except the micro–faults) are mainly characterized by meter–scale, non–interlayered, low–speed and low–pressure displacements within soft sediments, most commonly in the form of plastic deformation. Taking into account the geographic setting, lithology and deformation features, we interpret these soft–sediment deformation features as the products of freeze/thaw cycles, rather than of earthquake–induced shock waves, thus reflecting regional temperature changes and fluctuations of hydrothermal conditions in the uppermost sediments. The micro–faults(close to linear hot springs) are ascribed to regional fault activity;however, we were unable to identify the nature of the micro–faults, perhaps due to disturbance by subsequent freeze/thaw cycles. This study may serve as a guide to recognizing the differences between deformation structures attributed to freeze/thaw cycles and seismic processes.

A Preliminary Study on the Soft–Sediment Deformation Structures in the Late Quaternary Lacustrine Sediments at Tashkorgan, Northeastern Pamir, China

This study identified soft-sediment deformation structures （SSDS） of seismic origin from lacustrine sediments in the late Quaternary paleo-dammed lake at Tashkorgan, northeastern Pamir. The observed deformation structures include sand dykes, liquefied diapir and convolute structures, gravity induced SSDS, and thixotropic pillar and tabular structures. We conducted a preliminary study on the morphology, formation and trigger mechanisms of pillar and tabular structures formed by liquefaction of underlying coarse sand and thixotropy of the upper silty clay. The regional tectonic setting and distribution of lacustrine strata indicate that the most probable trigger for the SSDS in lacustrine sediments was seismic activity, with an approximate earthquake magnitude of M〉6.0; the potential seismogenic fault is the southern part of the Kongur normal fault extensional system. AMS ^4C dating results indicate that the SSDS were formed by seismic events occurring between 26050±100 yrBP and 22710±80 yrBP, implying intense fault activity in this region during the late Pleistocene. This study provides new evidence for understanding tectonic activity and regional geodynamics in western China.

The Seismic Induced Soft Sediment Deformation Structures in the Middle Jurassic of Western Qaidamu Basin

Intervals of soft-sediment deformation structures are well-exposed in Jurassic lacustrine deposits in the western Qaidamu basin. Through field observation, many soft-sediment deformation structures can be identified, such as convoluted bedding, liquefied sand veins, load and flame structures, slump structures and sliding-overlapping structures. Based on their genesis, soft-sediment deformation structures can be classified as three types： seismic induced structures, vertical loading structures, and horizontal shear structures. Based on their geometry and genesis analysis, they are seismic-induced structures. According to the characteristics of convoluted bedding structures and liquefied sand veins, it can be inferred that there were earthquakes greater than magnitude 6 in the study area during the middle Jurassic. Furthermore, the study of the slump structures and sliding- overlapping structures indicates that there was a southeastern slope during the middle Jurassic. Since the distance from the study area to the Altyn Mountain and the Altyn fault is no more than 10km, it can be also inferred that the Altyn Mountain existed then and that the AItyn strike-slip fault was active during the middle Jurassic.

Earthquake-induced Soft-sediment Deformation Structures in the Dengfeng Area,Henan Province,China:Constraints on Qinling Tectonic Evolution during the Early Cambrian

Soft-sediment deformation structures are abundant in the Cambrian Zhushadong and Mantou formations of the Dengfeng area, Henan Province, China. Soft-sediment deformation structures of the Zhushadong Formation consist of fluidized deformation, synsedimentary faults, seismo-folds and plastic deformation; the Mantou Formation is dominated by small-scale horst faults, intruded dikes, fluidized veins, and seismo-cracks. These structures are demonstrated to be earthquake-related by analysis of trigger mechanisms, and may indicate the activity of the Qinling tectonic belt during the early Cambrian. Furthermore, the assemblages of soft-sediment deformation structures altered with time： large-scale, intense deformation in the Zhushadong Formation alters to small-scale, weak deformation in the Mantou Formation. This striking feature may have been caused by changes in hypocentral depth from deep-focus to shallow-focus earthquakes, indicating that the Qinling tectonic belt developed from the subduction of the Shangdan Ocean to the extension of the Erlangping back-arc basin. This study suggests that soft-sediment deformation structures can be used to reveal the activity of a tectonic belt, and, more importantly, changes in deformation assemblages can track the evolution of a tectonic belt.

Soft Sediment Deformation Structures in the Maastrichtian Patti Formation, Southern Bida Basin Nigeria: Implications for the Assessment of Endogenic Triggers in the Maastrichtian Sedimentary Record

Detailed fieldwork carried out in the southern part of Bida Basin, Nigeria, allowed the documentation of soft sediment deformation structures (SSDS) in the Maastrichtian Patti Formation. The aim of this study is to examine the sedimentary successions, describe and analyse these deformation features, discuss their deformation mechanisms and potential triggers. The Maastrichtian Patti Formation is composed of lithofacies interpreted to have been deposited in tidal and fluvial sedimentary environments. Soft sediment deformation structures recognised in the tidal sediments were clastic dykes, load cast, isolated sand balls, dish-and-pillar structures, convolute lamination, diapiric structures and recumbent folds. Severely deformed cross beds, ring structures, associated sand balls, normal folds and recumbent folds were identified in the fluvial sediments. SSDS recognised were interpreted to have been caused by effects of liquefaction and fluidization. Field observations, facies analysis and morphology of the SSDS indicate that there are relationship between the depositional environments and SSDS. Endogenic processes are considered as the trigger agents and they are represented by rapid sedimentation and overloading, impact of breaking waves, pressure fluctuations caused by turbulent water flow, cyclic stress and current generated by storm waves and changes in water table. The present study did not identify exogenic processes as trigger agent. The occurrence of SSDS in southern Bida Basin strongly favoured a non-tectonic origin but a clear relationship high energy processes in tidal and fluvial depositional environments.

Earthquake-related Tectonic Deformation of Soft-sediments and Its Constraints on Basin Tectonic Evolution

The authors introduced two kinds of newly found soft-sediment deformation-synsedimentary extension structure and syn-sedimentary compression structure, and discuss their origins and constraints on basin tectonic evolution. One representative of the syn-sedimentary extension structure is syn-sedimentary boudinage structure, while the typical example of the syn-sedimentary compression structure is compression sand pillows or compression wrinkles. The former shows NW-SE-trendlng contemporaneous extension events related to earthquakes in the rift basin near a famous Fe-Nb-REE deposit in northern China during the Early Paleozoic （or Mesoproterozoic as proposed by some researches）, while the latter indicates NE-SW-trending contemporaneous compression activities related to earthquakes in the Middle Triassic in the Nanpanjiang remnant basin covering south Guizhou, northwestern Guangxi and eastern Yunnan in southwestern China. The syn-sedimentary boudinage structure was found in an earthquake slump block in the lower part of the Early Paleozoic Sailinhudong Group, 20 km to the southeast of Bayan Obo, Inner Mongolia, north of China. The slump block is composed of two kinds of very thin layers-pale-gray micrite （microcrystalline limestone） of 1-2 cm thick interbedded with gray muddy micrite layers with the similar thickness. Almost every thin muddy micrite layer was cut into imbricate blocks or boudins by abundant tiny contemporaneous faults, while the interbedded micrite remain in continuity. Boudins form as a response to layer-parallel extension （and/or layer-perpendicular flattening） of stiff layers enveloped top and bottom by mechanically soft layers. In this case, the imbricate blocks cut by the tiny contemporaneous faults are the result of abrupt horizontal extension of the crust in the SE-NW direction accompanied with earthquakes. Thus, the rock block is, in fact, a kind of seismites. The syn-sedimentary boudins indicate that there was at least a strong earthquake belt on the southeast side of the basin during the early stage of the Sailinhudong Group. This may be a good constraint on the tectonic evolution of the Bayan Obo area during the Early Paleozoic time. The syn-sedimentary compression structure was found in the Middle Triassic flysch in the Nanpanjiang Basin. The typical structures are compression sand pillows and compression wrinkles. Both of them were found on the bottoms of sand units and the top surface of the underlying mud units. In other words, the structures were found only in the interfaces between the graded sand layer and the underlying mud layer of the flysch. A deformation experiment with dough was conducted, showing that the tectonic deformation must have been instantaneous one accompanied by earthquakes. The compression sand pillows or wrinkles showed uniform directions along the bottoms of the sand layer in the flysch, revealing contemporaneous horizontal compression during the time between deposition and diagenesis of the related beds. The Nanpanjiang Basin was affected, in general, with SSW-NNE compression during the Middle Triassic, according to the syn-sedimentary compression structure. The two kinds of syn-sedimentary tectonic deformation also indicate that the related basins belong to a rift basin and a remnant basin, respectively, in the model of Wilson Cycle.

Global case studies of soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS): Definitions,classifications, advances, origins, and problems

Soft-sediment deformation structures（SSDS）have been the focus of attention for over 150 years.Existing unconstrained definitions allow one to classify a wide range of features under the umbrella phrase＂SSDS＂.As a consequence,a plethora of at least 120 different types of SSDS（e.g.,convolute bedding,slump folds,load casts,dish-and-pillar structures,pockmarks,raindrop imprints,explosive sandegravel craters,clastic injections,crushed and deformed stromatolites,etc.）have been recognized in strata ranging in age from Paleoproterozoic to the present time.The two factors that control the origin of SSDS are prelithification deformation and liquidization.A sedimentological compendium of 140 case studies of SSDS worldwide,which include 30 case studies of scientific drilling at sea（DSDP/ODP/IODP）,published during a period between 1863and 2017,has yielded at least 31 different origins.Earthquakes have remained the single most dominant cause of SSDS because of the prevailing＂seismite＂mindset.Selected advances on SSDS research are：（1）an experimental study that revealed a quantitative similarity between raindrop-impact cratering and asteroid-impact cratering;（2）IODP Expedition 308 in the Gulf of Mexico that documented extensive lateral extent（〉12 km）of mass-transport deposits（MTD）with SSDS that are unrelated to earthquakes;（3）contributions on documentation of pockmarks,on recognition of new structures,and on large-scale sediment deformation on Mars.Problems that hinder our understanding of SSDS still remain.They are：（1）vague definitions of the phrase＂soft-sediment deformation＂;（2）complex factors that govern the origin of SSDS;（3）omission of vital empirical data in documenting vertical changes in facies using measured sedimentological logs;（4）difficulties in distinguishing depositional processes from tectonic events;（5）a model-driven interpretation of SSDS（i.e.,earthquake being the singular cause）;（6）routine application of the genetic term＂seismites＂to the＂SSDS＂,thus undermining the basic tenet of process sedimentology（i.e.,separation of interpretation from observation）;（7）the absence of objective criteria to differentiate 21 triggering mechanisms of liquefaction and related SSDS;（8）application of the process concept＂high-density turbidity currents＂,a process that has never been documented in modern oceans;（9）application of the process concept＂sediment creep＂with a velocity connotation that cannot be inferred from the ancient record;（10）classification of pockmarks,which are hollow spaces（i.e.,without sediments）as SSDS,with their problematic origins by fluid expulsion,sediment degassing,fish activity,etc.;（11）application of the Earth＇s climate-change model;and most importantly,（12）an arbitrary distinction between depositional process and sediment deformation.Despite a profusion of literature on SSDS,our understanding of their origin remains muddled.A solution to the chronic SSDS problem is to utilize the robust core dataset from scientific drilling at sea（DSDP/ODP/IODP）with a constrained definition of SSDS.

Researches of soft-sediment deformation structures and seismites in China—A brief review

During the past 30 years （1987-2016）, a great progress has been made in researches of soft-sediment deformation structures （SSDS）, seismites and pataeoearthquakes in China. However, the research thought of this academic fietd is not open enough. It is atmost with one viewpoint or one voice, i.e., atmost art the papers pubtished in journals of China considered the layers with SSDS as seismites. On the other hand, the authors are very glad to learn that the professors and students of China University of Petroleum （East China） have proposed different academic viewpoints on the origin of SSDS in Lingshan Istand, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China. It is a very active academic atmosphere. The authors＇ ideas are as follows： （1） The SSDS are sedimentary structures with multi-origin. The term ＂SSDS＂ is a good sedimentary and geological term and shoutd be utilized continuat[y. （2） The term ＂seismites＂ is a term which is definitety assigned to the layers with SSDS induced by earthquakes. It is one type of the tayers with SSDS. It is not equal to SSDS. （3） Some geotogists suggested obsoleting the term ＂seismites＂. These suggestions are rational However, since the term ＂seismites＂ has been utilized for a long time in China and worldwide, to obsolete this term should be discussed and agreement should be acquired from numerous geologists in China and worldwide. It may be suitable that let the geological practice decide whether to obsolete it or not. （4） Hopefully, further progress will be made in the researches of SSDS.

Typical earthquake-induced soft-sediment deformation structures in the Mesoproterozoic Wumishan Formation, Yongding River Valley, Beijing, China and interpreted earthquake frequency

The Mesoproterozoic Wumishan Formation, composed of dolomite is a widely distributed stratigraphic unit in the Beijing area. It was formed over a long period of time in the Yan-Liao aulacogen, a stable peritidal environment that was ideal for recording earthquakes in the form of soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS). Numerous examples occur in the upper part of the Wumishan Formation, along the Yongding River Valley. In addition, brittle structures include intrastratal fault and seismically cracked breccias. The soft-sediment deformation structures include liquefied features (diapirs, clastic dykes, convolute bedding), compressional deformation features (accordion folds, plate-spine breccias, mound-and-sag structures), and extensional plastic features (loop-bedding). Based on the regional geological setting and previous research, movements along the main axial fault of the Yan-Liao aulacogen are considered as the triggers for earthquakes since the Early Mesoproterozoic. The number and distribution of the SSDS suggest the major earthquake frequency in the Wumishan Formation of 20 to 32 thousand years.

Soft-sediment deformation structures related to volcanic earthquakes of the Lower Cretaceous Qingshan Group in Lingshan Island, Shandong Province, East China

The study on soft-sediment deformation structures(SSDS) of Lingshan Island has been one of the hot topics of sedimentology researches in China in recent years,and SSDS developed in turbidite system in the Laiyang Group are widely known by domestic researchers.However,few studies were conducted on the SSDS in fan delta system in the Qingshan Group,Lingshan Island.This study analyzes the classification and characteristics of SSDS especially their lithofacies association and tithologic characteristics through field outcrops investigation and thin section analysis as well.A conclusion was acquired that the paleoenvironment was a fan delta system with occurrence of several volcanic eruptions,where the water became gradually shallower.The SSDS types in the Qingshan Group includes load and flame structure,ball and pillow structure,waterescape structure,hydroplastic deformation structure,plastic sandstone breccia structure,volcanic drop stone and V-shaped ground fissure mainly caused by volcanic earthquakes of three types:(1)seismic waves,(2)gravity and inertia effect of pyroclastic flows,(3)instant differential air pressure;which is different from slumping and tectonic earthquakes occurred in the Laiyang Group.In addition,with the lithofacies association analysis between pyroclastic flow and SSDS beds,a distribution model of SSDS related to volcanic earthquakes can be established:SSDS types changed gradually with their distance further away from the volcanic activity core.Brittle deformation which was common in the proximal zone disappeared gradually;liquefied and plastic SSDS continued to dominate in the medial zone;and slightly liquefied SSDS were developed in the distal zone.Meanwhile,the scale and size of SSDS is negatively correlated with the distance of SSDS depositional locations from the volcanic vent.

A brief review on 7 papers from the special issue of “The environmental significance of soft-sediment deformation” of the Sedimentary Geology 344(2016)

From the viewpoint of origins of soft-sediment deformation structures（SSDS）, 7 papers（Ito et al.,2016; Jiang et al., 2016; Lunina and Gladkov, 2016; Moretti et al., 2016; Rana et al., 2016; Rodríguez-Pascua et al., 2016; Wheatley et al., 2016） selected from the special issue of ＂The environmental significance of softsediment deformation＂ of the Sedimentary Geology 344（2016） were reviewed.（1） The first paper（according to the published order） by Moretti et al. is a general review and introduction of this special issue. This special issue has made an important contribution to the study of sedimentary environments.（2） The fourth paper by Rodríguez-Pascua et al. is an excellent case study. All evidence of earthquake in this paper is reliable. The old Roman City（adjacent to Madrid, the capital of Spain） was definitely destroyed by an earthquake. This paper solved the problem that the archaeologists have not solved yet.（3） The 19 thpaper by Rana et al. is another excellent case study. It demonstrated that SSDS in the youngest modern sediments in the seismically active area, i.e., the Alaknanda Valley, Garhwal Himalaya, India, are of non-seismic origin, but with typically sedimentary origin. All evidence of sedimentary origin of SSDS in the study area is reliable.（4） The second paper by Lunina and Gladkov stated that SSDS（mainly clastic dikes） in epicentral areas of the recent earthquakes in southern Siberia were originated by earthquakes and that the clastic dikes are the most reliable indicators in the epicentral areas of earthquakes. This conclusion is right. However, it is not accurate to consider all clastic injections as ＂in-situ earthquake structures＂ in anywhere, because the clastic injections are with multiple origins.（5） The third paper by Wheatley et al. comprehensively stated the clastic pipes of the Jurassic in the Colorado Plateau, USA. However, the principal origin of the clastic pipes（columns） was possibly not originated by ＂palaeoseismic controls＂, but by ＂tectonic controls＂ or ＂tectonic uplifts＂.（6） The 10^（th） paper by Jiang et al.proposed that 6 types of SSDS of the Lixian Section in eastern Tibetan Plateau, i.e., in a tectonically and seismically active area, were originated by earthquakes. However, the evidence of seismic origin is not sufficient. Therefore, the origins of SSDS in the Lixian Section are worthy to be further discussed.（7） The＂injectites＂ and ＂extrudites＂ in a Late Pliocene basin on the Boso Peninsula, Japan, from the 24^（th） paper by Ito et al., are non-SSDS and their origin is unreliable.The above viewpoints may be inappropriate. Criticisms and corrections are welcome.This paper is not only the author＇s brief review on 7 papers selected from the special issue of the Sedimentary Geology 344（2016）, but also an invitation to geologists worldwide to write papers for a new special issue of ＂The origins of SSDS＂ of the Journal of Palaeogeography which is planned to be published in 2018.

陆相湖盆沉积物滑塌变形研究进展

陆相湖盆中沉积物滑塌常造成复杂的同沉积变形,对确定古地震事件、古地形等有重要作用,系统研究滑塌变形体系有助于厘清变形成因、理解变形机理和深化区域构造背景认识。笔者等梳理国内外滑塌变形研究进展,总结沉积物顺坡滑塌的形成条件、滑塌变形特征,尤其是滑塌褶皱的形态演化、伴生构造、对古斜坡的指示、有关滑塌变形的物理模拟等,并结合野外变形成因的识别,探讨滑塌成因与后期构造成因变形的有效鉴别标志。综合分析认为,陆相湖盆滑塌变形与重力流沉积密不可分,单一滑塌体的褶皱形态从滑塌体后缘到前缘由圆柱状褶皱、紧闭等厚直立褶皱转变为蘑菇状褶皱,演化过程可划分为多个阶段。在滑塌褶皱中存在逆冲断层、碎屑脉体、不规则侵蚀面、软布丁构造等,引起滑塌变形的机制可分为应力作用机制和液化作用机制。物理模拟因其可改变材料物理参数的优势,可能成为未来滑塌变形的重要研究方向。指出在鉴别滑塌成因变形和后期构造成因变形研究中仍然存在较多争议,其中未固结沉积物的活化、再改造、生物扰动、液化现象的存在是确定软沉积物变形的关键,变形构造在大尺度、层系规模上具有相同的应力场并与区域构造背景相符合是后期构造成因变形的最有力证据。

准噶尔盆地玛湖凹陷风城组沉积环境与沉积模式分析

玛湖凹陷是准噶尔盆地重要的生烃凹陷,其下二叠统风城组作为主力烃源岩,也是重要的勘探层系。风城组的岩相展布与沉积模式的研究,对明确玛湖凹陷的构造演化过程和油气勘探具有重要的参考意义。基于最新的测井、录井资料,建立玛页1井风城组综合柱状图,查明玛湖凹陷风城组岩相展布,进而重建玛湖凹陷下二叠统风城组各沉积时期的沉积环境,明确沉积模式。研究结果表明,玛页1井风城组主要为黑色-灰黑色细粒沉积岩,大量发育软沉积变形构造,说明玛北地区风城组主要为半深湖-深湖亚相沉积。根据连井岩相剖面,玛湖凹陷风城组自下而上发育进积-退积-进积的旋回特征,自南西向北东方向为扇三角洲相-湖泊相-河流三角洲相沉积。风一段火山岩火山活动强烈,玛北地区发育水下熔结凝灰岩、火山碎屑岩及玄武岩,主要为浅湖沉积。风二段玛南地区为扇三角洲沉积,向玛西地区过渡为三角洲-滨浅湖沉积,玛北地区发育半深湖-深湖沉积,在湖盆中心发育碱性矿物沉淀;风二段中部化学沉淀分布范围最广,指示最大洪泛面。风三段进积作用加强,湖盆萎缩,玛南、玛西地区发育扇三角洲沉积,玛北地区发育半深湖-滨浅湖沉积。结合其沉积演化过程,玛湖凹陷风城组是受到外源碎屑沉积、内源化学沉淀和火山碎屑物质等影响的多源混积沉积模式。

Characteristics, Genesis, and Sedimentary Environment of Duplex-Like Structures in the Jurassic Sediments of Western Qaidam Basin, China

A particular type of soft-sediment deformation structure, similar to imbricate structure, is developed in the Jurassic strata at Honggouzi, western Qaidam Basin, China. We refer to this structure as a duplex-like deformation structure, because it is inferred to have been formed by the action of fast-moving, submarine gravity current sediments gliding across a pre-existing semiconsolidated sedimentary layer. The layers of duplex-like structure crop out in the southeastern limb of the core of a medium-sized anticline. The average dip direction of the duplex-like structure is 301.2° and the average dip angle is 54.7°. Duplex-like deformed laminations are composed mainly of weakly metamorphosed, extremely poorly sorted, feldspathic lithic graywacke. Sericite can be observed along bedding planes. The duplex-like structure occurs within a sequence of river-channel fine conglomerate, interchannel carbonaceous mudstone（shale）, shallow-water delta sand-shale, shallow-lake calcareous mudstone, olistostromes, and a turbidite. At the bottom of the sequence, we found brownish-red shallow-lake calcareous mudstone and carbonaceous mudstone and at the top olistostromes whose genesis is related to the slip and drag of a slumped body of submarine sediment. In combination with other symbiotic and associated structures, it is considered that the duplex-like structure was formed by the slumping and subsequent movement and traction of delta-front semiconsolidated sediments over the bottom sediments of a shore or shallow-lake sedimentary environment, probably triggered by an earthquake. The attitude of the duplex-like structure indicates that the direction of gliding was from NW301.2° toward SE121°, which is consistent with the current location of the Altun Mountains, indicating that the Altun Mountains existed in the Jurassic. The orogenesis of these mountains likely involved seismic activity, and an earthquake was the triggering factor in the formation of the duplex-like structure by causing the slumping/gliding of the olistostrome sediments.

中国软沉积物变形构造及地震岩研究简评

近30年(1987—2016)来,中国的软沉积物变形构造、地震岩、震积岩及古地震研究,取得了很大的进展和成绩。但是,在国内中文期刊中已发表的约140篇文章和已出版的一些专著中,几乎都把具软沉积物变形构造的岩层当作地震岩。可喜的是,中国石油大学(华东)的老师们和学生们,对山东青岛灵山岛下白垩统中的软沉积物变形构造的研究,却有多种不同的观点,呈现出了一种活跃的学术气氛。笔者等的看法是:(1)软沉积物变形构造是一种沉积构造,它有多种成因,它是一个很好的沉积学和地质学术语,应继续地和更广泛地使用下去。(2)地震岩是专指由地震引起的具软沉积物变形构造的岩层,它是具多成因的软沉积物变形构造的岩层的一种,不能把所有的具软沉积构造的岩层都当作地震岩。有的地质学家建议废弃地震岩这一术语。(3)震积岩是"seismites"(地震岩)的误译,不宜再继续使用。(4)由于地震岩和震积岩这两个术语在国内外已使用多年,要废弃它们或不再继续使用它们,应得到国内外的多数地质学家的同意才行。

软沉积变形构造的分类和形成机制研究

软沉积变形构造是指沉积物沉积之后、固结之前在处于软沉积物阶段时由于物理作用发生变形所形成的一系列构造。作为一种广泛发育的沉积构造,对其分类和成因机制的研究一直是国内外研究的热点。目前主流的分类方案是依据其成因机制为主再考虑其他因素将软沉积变形构造分为负载构造、包卷层理、变形交错层、滑塌构造、泄水和沉积物挤入构造、塌陷构造以及由生物和化学作用所形成的变形构造。而作为一种重要的软沉积变形构造,震积构造可以依据地震对沉积物改造的时间划分为同生、准同生和后生变形三种基本类型,而每一种基本类型可以分别受到伸展、挤压、剪切、液化以及震动而形成不同的软沉积变形构造。软沉积变形构造的触发因素多样,但主要是地震引起沉积物的液化产生的变形,因此可以按照沉积相分析、触发因素评估和标准评估三个步骤对软沉积变形构造的成因进行识别。作为一种广泛分布的沉积构造,软沉积变形构造成因机制的识别和判断仍然将是其研究的一个重要方向;其次软沉积变形在地质工程方面的应用也是一个研究方向;最后,随着油气勘探走向深水,发现软沉积变形构造有关的油气藏也将是另外一个研究的方向。

龙门山中、新生界软沉积物变形及构造演化

龙门山是由三条主要断裂组成的山体。汶川—茂县断裂,也称后山断裂,构成龙门山的西部边界;映秀—北川断裂为龙门山的中央断裂;灌县—安县断裂为龙门山的东部边界,也称前山断裂。龙门山断裂带以东为始自晚三叠世末的不同时期的前陆盆地。前陆盆地中从晚三叠世至2008年5月12日汶川地震(MS8.0),在不同年代地层中均有丰富的软沉积物变形构造(SSDS)记录,包括液化变形、重力作用变形、水塑性变形及其他相关的变形。这些变形层的地点紧邻龙门山的三条断裂,这些断裂在不同时期的活动诱发不同时期的强地震,导致当时尚未固结的沉积物变形(震积岩)。上三叠统小塘子组的软沉积的变形构造有液化角砾岩、液化滴状体、液化底辟、触变底辟、卷曲变形、拉伸布丁、负载、球-枕构造、枕状层及粒序断层等。侏罗系、白垩系主要为粗粒沉积物,除少数层位发现有液化变形外,主要的软沉积变形类型为各种形态、大尺度的砾岩负载构造。古近系为湖相沉积,沉积物粒度较细,软沉积物变形又出现大量液化变形构造,如液化混插、液化角砾岩等。2008年5月12日汶川地震(MS8.0)诱发大规模地表以下沙层液化,形成一系列液化变形构造与微地貌:液化沙堆、液化席状沙、沙火山、液化丘、坑状地形与混杂堆积。应用龙门山反射地震成果、古地震记录,结合区域构造可以给出龙门山断裂带发生的时间顺序与地震造山时期:(1)松潘—甘孜造山带与扬子板块的碰撞发生于晚三叠世早期,二者的边界即现在的汶川—茂县断裂;汶川—茂县断裂于晚三叠世末逆冲推覆造山,三叠纪末龙门山地区的山地可称松潘-甘孜山,在其东侧形成前陆盆地;晚三叠世印支造山旋回的大陆动力作用是龙门山诞生与孕育的阶段。(2)映秀—北川断裂与灌县—安县断裂的逆冲活动时间为侏罗纪—早白垩世,形成高山与前陆盆地。(3)早白垩世的龙门山已是一个由三条逆冲断裂组成的断裂带山体,可称古龙门山,山高约3 500m。(4)三条断裂在古近纪的活动诱发古近系软沉积物变形,但断裂未发生逆冲推覆造山,沉积物为湖相细粒沉积,古近纪是一个地震活动期,但不是造山的阶段。(5)中生代龙门山经历了多次瞬时地震造山与平静期山脉剥蚀降低的过程,现在的龙门山是晚新生代期间多次地震瞬时造山的产物。与众多的龙门山地学研究者不同,本文系采用另一种思维——软沉积物变形构造,即通过古地震途径讨论龙门山地区的构造演化。

北京西山寒武系滑塌构造的初步研究

北京西山地区的寒武系层序完整,剖面出露好,是中国地质学家研究寒武系的经典地区之一。前人对北京地区寒武系的研究集中于百花山北麓清水河—永定河流域的军庄、丁家滩、下苇甸、青白口至军饷之间的露头。作者等在北京房山地区百花山南麓进行地质考察中,在上寒武统崮山组下部的中薄层条带状灰岩和砾屑灰岩中发现了典型的滑塌变形层,变形主要表现为发育大量的小型层间微型断裂或褶皱,大部分断裂表现为小型的低角度逆冲性质,断裂面呈舒缓波状,平均倾角10°左右,微型断裂面上盘还可见更次级的微型褶曲或断层和布丁。滑塌变形层之下还发现了与古地震有成因关系的楔状构造和特殊的砾岩。结合前人在寒武系中已经发现的震积岩,初步认为,这种典型的滑塌变形的直接触发机制很可能是伴随着华北古板块在中寒武世末与晚寒武世之间的"翘翘板式运动"而发生的古地震。

塔里木盆地满加尔坳陷及周缘晚奥陶世古地震记录及其地质意义

通过对钻井岩芯的详细观察和描述,发现在塔里木盆地满加尔坳陷晚奥陶世开阔陆棚相—盆地相沉积地层中,存在各种各样的、复杂的软沉积物变形构造,主要有液化流动构造,包括液化砂岩脉、液化角砾岩、底劈构造及水塑性卷曲变形与震积不整合等。特别是在满加尔坳陷与卡塔克隆起结合部塔中Ⅰ号断层的下降盘,发现存在米级软沉积物变形构造,以软沉积物布丁变形构造为主,变形构造的上、下均发育不等厚的未变形沉积层。这些变形构造的形成与震积作用有关,发育在晚奥陶世不同时期。在晚奥陶世早期,古地震记录表现出拉张应力作用的结果,且由早至晚古地震应力有逐渐增强的趋势。发现的多幕次的古地震记录表明,中加里东运动在满加尔坳陷及周缘表现明显,塔中Ⅰ号断裂是该时期古地震的主控断裂,其活动具有周期性和多旋回的特点,表现为多期次的由弱到强再结束的特征,且在不同部位有差异。晚奥陶世塔中Ⅰ号断裂带的地震活动影响着该区古构造和古沉积的发育。

软沉积物变形中负载、球—枕构造的古地震研究综述

在构造活动地区,软沉积物变形是研究古地震的一种关键证据。近年来,湖相沉积中的软沉积物变形受到越来越多的关注,但多数研究局限于软沉积物变形的形态分类。相比之下,对软沉积物变形的成因分析、触发机制和变形过程缺少系统分析,以至于软沉积物变形能否反映地震事件,以及软沉积物变形类型、强弱与地震震级和震中位置是否存在明确关联还存在较大争议。鉴于此,本文选择软沉积物变形中典型的变形构造—负载、球—枕构造,从其具体特征、成因、触发机制、变形过程、变形强弱与震级及震中距关系等方面展开讨论。统计结果显示,当沉积记录中的负载、球—枕构造为地震成因时,其代表的震级可能为6.0~7.0级,震中距约为20~70 km。就相同变形强度的负载、球—枕构造来说,湖相沉积记录的震级最强,其次为河湖相沉积和海相沉积。负载、球—枕构造变形层的宽度和厚度以及球状半径大小与地震震级具有正相关关系,而岩性与地震震级大小没有直接的对应关系。利用软沉积物变形所对应的地震震级估算距震中距离,或者采用软沉积物变形距断层距离估算地震震级的方法都是可行的。这样看来,软沉积物变形不仅能够记录地震事件,而且能够根据其变形类型、尺度大小和强度变化等,较好地确定地震震级及震中位置,为古地震研究提供了一个相对独立的研究方向。