Diffusion of Spatial Data Infrastructures： Private More Inspired than the Public Sector---A Case of Tanzania

Spatial data is a key resource for national development. There is a lot of potential locked in spatial data and this potential may be realized by making spatial data readily available for various applications. SD1 （Spatial Data Infrastructures） provides a platform for the data users, producers and so on to generate and share spatial data effectively. Though efforts to develop spatial data infrastructures started worldwide in the late 1970s, SDIs are still perceived by many institutions as new innovation; as such, they have not penetrated to all institutions to bring about effective management and development changes. This paper is reporting on a study conducted to assess SDI Readiness Index for Tanzania. The study aimed at identifying problems undermining SD1 implementation in Tanzania, despite its potential in bringing fast socio-economic development elsewhere in the world. This paper is based on a research based on views from stakeholders of geospatial technology industry in Municipal Councils, Private Companies and Government Departments in Tanzania. Results indicated that Private Companies are more inspired than Government institutions towards implementation of SDIs. And those problems affecting implementation of SDIs are lack of National SDI Policy, lack of awareness and knowledge about SDIs, limited funding to operationalise SDI, lack of institutional leadership to coordinate SDI development activities, lack of political commitment from the Government. It is recommended that delibate efforts be devised to raise awareness of SDI amongst the Tanzanian community.

Towards a Spatial Data Infrastructure and an Integrated Management of Groundwater Resources

International studies of expertise have shown that the difficulty of data access is one of the major hindrances that brakes any effort to conduct studies on groundwater. This research paper is an attempt to address this problematic through developing a technical framework to implement a Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) with a view to improving the status of access to data related to groundwater in Morocco, and achieving their interoperability. This prototype is primarily based on international standards (OGC & ISO) such as Web Map Service (WMS), Web Feature Service (WFS), Catalog Web Service (CSW) and Sensor Observation Service (SOS) accompanied by the use of associated specifications such as Geography Markup Language (GML) and Filter Encoding (FE). This platform is considered both as a tool for sharing updated data collected from numerous and divers source providers, and as a tool of web-based GIS for groundwater management, which constitutes the basis for decision making.

A Diachronic Perspective on the Use of French Spatial Data Infrastructures

Despite the recent development of many worldwide initiatives, there is still a need for the development of observation frameworks that will provide a comprehensive view of SDI’s use. Amongst the many challenges left, a thorough analysis of the information flows between existing SDIs as well as their respective uses and the way that those evolve over time is an important issue to explore. The research presented in this paper introduces a methodological framework oriented to the study of the SDIs use from a diachronic perspective. The approach is based on a Social Network Analysis (SNA) and questionnaires collected by online surveys. We develop a structural and diachronic analysis based on a series of graph-based measures identifying the main patterns that appear over time. The methodological framework is applied to a series of French SDIs and users involved in environmental management. The study identifies a series of structural differences in the data flows that emerge between the users and SDIs. Last, the diachronic network analysis provides an overall understanding on how data flows evolve over time at different institutional levels.

Study on the Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Germany

Infrastructure for spatial information is an important part of our national information construction that is the subject of essentials on the social of spatial information.As an EU member,Germany has an obligation for the European spatial information infrastructure to provide its spatial data.The relevant experience of the Germany in the organization,design and implementation of spatial information infrastructure will be a good reference to build our geospatial framework construction.

THE INTEGRATED SPATIAL DATABASES OF GEOSTAR

GeoStar is the registered trademark of GIS software made by WTUSM in China.By means of the GeoStar,multi_scale images,DEMs,graphics and attributes integrated in very large seamless databases can be created,and the multi_dimensional dynamic visualization and information extraction are also available.This paper describes the fundamental characteristics of such huge integrated databases,for instance,the data models,database structures and the spatial index strategies.At last,the typical applications of GeoStar for a few pilot projects like the Shanghai CyberCity and the Guangdong provincial spatial data infrastructure (SDI) are illustrated and several concluding remarks are stressed.

3D Spatial Information Intended for SDI: A Literature Review, Problem and Evaluation

In this paper, first we are going to discuss briefly the importance of 3D information, and its application because of the Increasing demand for detailed information about real world objects and phenomena including altimetry and planimetry data (X, Y, Z), then we will explain in short the available methods for 3D measurement. It’s important to note that the Information collection by itself cannot define and sufficiently provide all the necessary actions to be taken in order to get them accessible and useful for users. The data management and establishment of a proper and reliable DBMS and finally a GIS system at the same time are vital crucial in the course of 3D application that will be discussed throughout the paper. The existing drawbacks and elements needed to be considered for the cartographic presentation are the key issues in three-dimensional world visualization. The elaboration on the 3D information and its knowledge transfer to the users in a SDI framework as well as the requirement recognition of beneficiary organizations will be the next step in this paper and the most probable problems will be studied in this stage. At the final stage, we’ll come up with conclusion, warnings and recommendation.

Infrastructure's contribution to China's total factor productivity growth

This paper analyzes the relationship between transportation infrastructure and total factor productivity (TFP)growth in China with the spatial econometrics of panel data.The results of the empirical study show that there is anobvious spatial autocorrelation among China’s interlocal TFP from 1997 to 2007.Transportation infrastructure hasa positive impact on TFP in China; the addition of railway and road infrastructure caused China’s TFP to increase11.075 percentage points from 2001-07, making up 59.10% of TFP’s amplification.Freeways and first-class roadinfrastructure’s positive impacts are more obvious; direct effects are only 25.7% while indirect effects are 74.3%.Railinfrastructure had persistent positive impacts on China’s TFP from 2001-07; freeway infrastructure had persistentpositive impacts on China’s TFP from 1997-2007, but other road infrastructure has not shown these persistent effects.

Expanding the SDI environment:comparing current spatial data infrastructure with emerging indoor location-based services

The authors compare key elements of the emerging field of Indoor Location-Based Services(Indoor LBS)to those currently found in spatial data infrastructure(SDI)programs.After a brief review of SDIs and Location-Based Services,the corresponding drivers,characteristics and emerging issues within the field of Indoor LBS are introduced and discussed.A comparative framework relates the two in terms of the criteria‘People’,‘Data’,‘Technologies’,‘Standards’and‘Policies/Institutional Arrangements’.After highlighting key similarities and differences,the authors suggested three areas–definition of common framework datasets in Indoor LBS,more effective use of volunteered geographic information by SDI programs and development of appropriate privacy policies by both communities–that may benefit from sharing‘lessons learned’.

Harmonisation requirements and capabilities towards a European spatial data infrastructure (ESDI): the HUMBOLDT protected areas scenario

The HUMBOLDT project has the aim of implementing a Framework for harmonisation of data and services in the geoinformation domain,under the Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe(INSPIRE)Directive and in the context of the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security(GMES)Initiative.The two-pronged approach of HUM BOLDT comprises a technical side of software framework development and an application side of scenario testing and validation.Among the HUMBOLDT Application Scenarios designed to demonstrate the capabilities of the Framework there is the one covering Protected Areas themes and use cases It aims to transform geoinformation,managed by park authorities,into a seamless flow that com bines multiple information sources from different governance levels(European,national,regional),and exploits this newly combined information for the purposes of planning,management and tourism promotion.The Scenario constitutes a step further towards the integration of monitoring systems envisaged in the view of Digital Earth.Protected Areas Scenario creates an examples of the use of the HUMBOLDT tools in Desktop and Web GIS environment,together with setting up a server environment exploiting HUMBOLDT harmonisation framework as taking into account user require-ments and needs and providing benefits for making the road to ESDI establish-ment easier.

试论中国NSDI建设的若干问题

国家空间数据基础设施（ＮａｔｉｏｎａｌＳｐａｔｉａｌＤａｔａＩｎｆｒａｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅ，简称ＮＳＤＩ）是“数字地球”的基础。要发展中国数字地球及其应用，就必须加大ＮＳＤＩ的建设力度。文中主要从（地球）空间数据框架、空间数据标准、空间数据交换网络和空间数据协调管理机构４个方面，介绍了中国ＮＳＤＩ的有关进展，分析了其中存在的一些问题。

面向信息服务的SDI数字地理空间数据框架研究

“空间数据基础设施”(SpatialDataInfrastructure,SDI)是各国信息化发展的重要支撑,随着我国信息化进程的飞速推进,电子政务、公众信息服务对SDI提出了更高的要求。数字地理空间数据框架是SDI的核心与基础,是支持地理空间信息服务的关键。本文在分析国外技术现状与趋势的基础上,提出了适合我国国情的多尺度地理空间数据框架的模型,并通过实际工程验证了该模型的合理性与可行性。

城市空间数据基础设施(CSDI)技术框架研究

本文主要论述城市空间数据基础设施 ( CSDI)的技术框架 ,给出了空间基础数据库系统运行模式及结构 ,讨论了数据库数据格式转换基本原则和内容 .

A brief overview of current status of European spatial data infrastructures-relevant developments and perspectives for Bulgaria

The paper aims to present a concise overview of the current status of the national spatial data infrastructures(SDI)of the European Union(EU)member states combined with specific peculiarities for Bulgaria.Some major challenges within the progress of the EU SDIs establishing,which is regulated by the European Directive INSPIRE(Infrastructure for spatial information in Europe)toward establishment of a SDI for environmental policies and activities,are marked out.Available comparative analyses of the main indicators for metadata,data-sets,and data services provided by EU member states are briefly discussed as a special attention is given to the Bulgarian progress.Recent achievements on accelerating the process of implementing the recommendations of the INSPIRE Directive in Bulgaria are outlined.

SIRENE: A Spatial Data Infrastructure to Enhance Communities' Resilience to Disaster-Related Emergency

Planning in advance to prepare for and respond to a natural hazard-induced disaster-related emergency is a key action that allows decision makers to mitigate unexpected impacts and potential damage. To further this aim, a collaborative, modular, and information and communications technology-based Spatial Data Infrastructure(SDI)called SIRENE—Sistema Informativo per la Preparazione e la Risposta alle Emergenze(Information System for Emergency Preparedness and Response) is designed and implemented to access and share, over the Internet, relevant multisource and distributed geospatial data to support decision makers in reducing disaster risks. SIRENE flexibly searches and retrieves strategic information from local and/or remote repositories to cope with different emergency phases. The system collects, queries, and analyzes geographic information provided voluntarily by observers directly in the field(volunteered geographic information(VGI) reports) to identify potentially critical environmental conditions. SIRENE can visualize and cross-validate institutional and research-based data against VGI reports,as well as provide disaster managers with a decision support system able to suggest the mode and timing of intervention, before and in the aftermath of different types of emergencies, on the basis of the available information and in agreement with the laws in force at the national andregional levels. Testing installations of SIRENE have been deployed in 18 hilly or mountain municipalities(12 located in the Italian Central Alps of northern Italy, and six in the Umbria region of central Italy), which have been affected by natural hazard-induced disasters over the past years(landslides, debris flows, floods, and wildfire) and experienced significant social and economic losses.

Spatio-Temporal evolutive Data Infrastructure: a Spatial Data Infrastructure for managing data flows of Territorial Statistical Information

The observation of demographical,economical or environmental indicators over time through maps is crucial.It enables analysing territories and helps stakeholders to take decisions.However,the understanding of Territorial Statistical Information(TSI)is compromised unless comprehensive description of both the statistical methodology used and the spatial and temporal references are given.Thus,in this paper,we stress the importance of metadata descriptions and of their quality that helps assessing data reliability.Furthermore,time-series of such TSI are paramount.They enable analysing a territory over a long period of time and likewise judging the effectiveness of reforms.In light of these observations,we present Spatio-Temporal evolutive Data Infrastructure(STeDI)an innovative Spatial Data Infrastructure(SDI)that enriches the description of a Digital Earth,providing a virtual representation of territories and of their evolution through statistics and time.STeDI aims at managing a whole dataflow of multi-dimensional,multi-scale and multi-temporal TSI,from their acquisition to their dissemination to scientists and policy-makers.The content of this SDI evolves autonomously thanks to automated processes and to a Web platform that help improving the quality of datasets uploaded by experts.Then,STeDI allows visualizing up-to-date time-series reflecting the human activities on a given territory.It helps policy-makers in their decision-making process.

Governance interactions of spatial data infrastructures: an agent-based modelling approach

In order to facilitate and coordinate spatial data sharing and exchange,many organisations have developed spatial data infrastructures(SDIs).SDI governance plays a pivotal role in the development and evolution of an SDI,but as SDIs are complex adaptive systems,governing is a challenge.This research therefore proposes a complexity perspective to SDI governance by exploring the use of agent-based modelling to simulate and examine SDI governance interactions.In this agent-based simulation,we examine interactions between SDI stakeholders,data availability and the effects of different governance styles(hierarchical,network and laissez-faire governance)and budget policies.The simulation shows that it is possible to mimic SDI governance dynamics through agent-based modelling.By running different scenarios,it appears that a network approach is more successful compared to a hierarchical or laissez-faire approach.Expert validation shows that overall the results of the simulation are credible and insightful,although improvements can be made to make the model more realistic.With agent-based modelling,SDI governance becomes more tangible and visible,which facilitates discussion and understanding.Agent-based modelling therefore appears to be a helpful new approach in a better understanding of the complexities and dynamics of SDI governance.

Open data in spatial data infrastructure:the practices and experiences of Poland

As an important facilitator in e-government and society in general,Open SDI merits an assessment of its characteristics and the monitoring of its development.The aim of the study was the proposal of the SDI openness assessment approach based on existing openness assessment frameworks,as well as the presentation of the Polish Spatial Data Infrastructure(PSDI)development towards openness.The results indicated that ten geodetic and cartographic databases fulfilled ten out of eleven criteria of data openness,according to the methodological assumptions,and reached a 3-star level of openness.The need for further development of the infrastructure towards sharing public administration data is recognized,as well as non-governmental data that meet the open data criteria,thus contributing to the openness of the SDI.The proposed assessment method,referenced to a five-level data openness system and providing clear scoring benchmarking for assessing SDI openness,may be used for comparative analysis of SDI openness in different countries,including EU Member States that draw on the experience of the implementation of the INSPIRE Directive.

省域SDI建设1比1万数据生产工艺设计与实践

本文结合笔者近两年来参与山西省空间数据基础设施（SXPSDI）项目建设的具体实践和体会，重点阐述了省域空间数据基础设施建设前期，1：1万基础数据（包括数字正射影像、数字高程模型和交通、水系等框架矢量数据）生产工艺的设计思想、设计原则，以及SXPSDI数据采集工艺设计的主要内容。

IDE-OTALEX C. The First Crossborder SDI between Portugal and Spain： Background and Development

IDE-OTALEX is the first crossborder spatial data infrastructure between contiguous Portuguese （Alentejo and Centro） and Spanish （Extremadura） regions. It was implemented to share official geographic information from Alentejo and Extremadura, and now Centro region, with everyone. This is the most effective way to have a distributed and flexible system to be used as a territorial observatory for sustainable development and environment protection in these rural and low populated regions. It also contributes to territorial cohesion, one of the tree main pillars of European Cohesion Policy. It＇s characterized for being a distributed, decentralized, modular and collaborative system, based on standards OGC （Open Geospatial Consortium）, W3C （World Wide Web Consortium）, ISO （International Organization for Standardization） and open source technology, developed to guarantee interoperability between the different GIS （Geographic Information System） provided by each project partner. The geoportal is multilingual （Portuguese, Spanish and English） and integrates a Map viewer, Metadata Catalogue and Gazetteer. It consists in central and local nodes which communicate through WMS （Web Map Services）, CSW （Catalogue Service Web） and WFS （Web Feature Services）. It is now implementing SOS （Sensor Observation Services） and WPS （Web Map Processing）. The geographic information available results of an extensive work of data harmonisation adapted to INSPIRE Directive （D 2007/2/EC, the European Parliament and Council, March 14, 2007）. It integrates basic cartography, socio-economic, territorial and environmental indicators.

Building geospatial infrastructure

Many visions for geospatial technology have been advanced over the past half century.Initially researchers saw the handling of geospatial data as the major problem to be overcome.The vision of geographic information systems arose as an early international consensus.Later visions included spatial data infrastructure,Digital Earth,and a nervous system for the planet.With accelerating advances in information technology,a new vision is needed that reflects today’s focus on open and multimodal access,sharing,engagement,the Web,Big Data,artificial intelligence,and data science.We elaborate on the concept of geospatial infrastructure,and argue that it is essential if geospatial technology is to contribute to the solution of problems facing humanity.