Material embrittlement in high strain-rate loading

Material embrittlement is often encountered in machining,heat treatment,hydrogen and lowtemperature conditions among which machining is strain-rate related.More strain-rate evoked embrittlement is expected in material loading processes,such as in high-speed machining and projectile penetration.In order to understand the fundamental mechanisms of the strain-rate evoked material embrittlement,this study is concerned with the material responses to loading at high strain-rates.It then explores the strain-rate evoked material embrittlement and fragmentation during high strain-rate loading processes and evaluates various empirical and physical models from different researchers for the assessment of the material embrittlement.The study proposes strain-rate sensitivity for the characterization of material embrittlement and the concept of the pseudo embrittlement for material responses to very high strain-rates.A discussion section is arranged to explore the underlying mechanisms of the strain-rate evoked material embrittlement and fragmentation based on dislocation kinetics.

Strain-rate Sensitivity of Aluminum 2024-T6/TiB_2 Composites and Aluminum 2024-T6

Strain-rate sensitivities of 55vol%-65vol% aluminum 2024-T6/TiB2 composites and the corresponding aluminum 2024-T6 matrix were investigated using split Hopkinson pressure bar method. The experimental results showed that 55vol%-65vol% aluminum 2024-T6/TiB2 composites exhibited significant strain-rate sensitivities, which were three times higher than the strain-rate sensitivity of the aluminum 2024-T6 matrix. The strain-rate sensitivity of the aluminum 2024-T6 matrix composites rose obviously with increasing reinforcement content（up to 60%）, which agreed with that from the previous researches. But it decreased as the ceramic reinforcement content reached 65%. After high strain rates compression, a large number of dislocations and micro-cracks were found inside the matrix and the Ti B2 particles, respectively. These micro-cracks can accelerate the brittle fracture of the composites. The aluminum 2024-T6/Ti B2 composites showed various fracture characteristics and shear instability was the predominant failure mechanism under dynamic loading.

A QUASI-FLOW CONSTITUTIVE MODEL WITH STRAIN-RATE DEPENDENCE

In this paper,the proposed is a quasi-flow constitutive model with strain-rate sen- sitivity for elastic plastic large deformation.The model is based on the Quasi-flow Corner theory, and is suitable for the sheet metal forming process simulation with a variable punch machine velocity. Uniaxial tensile tests and deep-drawing tests of a circular blank with square punch are carried out and numerically simulated.The consistency between the experimental and the numerically simulated results shows the validity of the present new constitutive model.

A revisit of strain-rate frequency superposition of dense colloidal suspensions under oscillatory shears

Strain-rate frequency superposition(SRFS) is often employed to probe the low-frequency behavior of soft solids under oscillatory shear in anticipated linear response. However, physical interpretation of an apparently well-overlapped master curve generated by SRFS has to combine with nonlinear analysis techniques such as Fourier transform rheology and stress decomposition method. The benefit of SRFS is discarded when some inconsistencies of the shifted master curves with the canonical linear response are observed. In this work, instead of evaluating the SRFS in full master curves, two criteria were proposed to decompose the original SRFS data and to delete the bad experimental data. Application to Carabopol suspensions indicates that good master curves could be constructed based upon the modified data and the high-frequency deviations often observed in original SRFS master curves are eliminated. The modified SRFS data also enable a better quantitative description and the evaluation of the apparent structural relaxation time by the two-mode fractional Maxwell model.

Effects of Calcium and Yttrium on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High Strain-Rate Rolled AZ91D Magnesium Alloy

Effects of calcium( Ca) and yttrium( Y) on microstructure and mechanical properties of high strain-rate rolled AZ91 D magnesium alloy were studied. High strain-rate rolling can improve the strength and plasticity of magnesium alloy sheets.Additions of Ca and Y into AZ91 D can refine grains and modify the size and the distribution of the precipitated phases. After solution treatment( 418 ℃ and 20 h) and high strain-rate rolling( heating at420 ℃ for 10 min firstly and then rolling from 10 mm to 2 mm in thickness via a single pass),the tensile strength of the AZ91 D-0. 2%Ca alloy was 1. 3% higher than that of the AZ91 D-0. 4 D%Y alloy,and the tensile strength of the AZ91 D-0. 2%Ca-0. 4%Y alloy was about 8. 3% and 6. 9% higher than those of the AZ91 D-0. 4%Y and the AZ91 D-0. 2%Ca alloys respectively.

Advanced test methods of material property characterization:high strain-rate testing and experimental simulation of multiaxial stress states

Optimum utilization of the loading capability of engineering materials is an important and active contribution to protect nature's limited resources,and it is the key for economic design methods.In order to make use of the materials' resources,those must be known very well;but conventional test methods will offer only limited informational value.The range of questions raised is as wide as the application of engineering materials,and partially they are very specific.The development of huge computer powers enables numeric modelling to simulate structural behaviour in rather complex loading environments-so the real material behaviour is known under the given loading conditions.Here the art of material testing design starts.To study the material behaviour under very distinct and specific loading conditions makes it necessary to simulate different temperature ranges,loading speeds, environments etc.and mostly there doesn't exist any commonly agreed test standard.In this contribution two popular,non-standard test procedures and test systems will be discussed on the base of their application background,special design features as well as test results and typically gained information:The demand for highspeed tests up to 1000 s^(-1) of strain rate is very specific and originates primarily in the automotive industry and the answers enable CAE analysis of crashworthiness of vehicle structures under crash conditions.The information on the material behaviour under multiaxial loading conditions is a more general one.Multiaxial stress states can be reduced to an equivalent stress,which allows the evaluation of the material's constraint and criticality of stress state.Both discussed examples shall show that the open dialogue between the user and the producer of testing machines allows custom-tailored test solutions.

Dynamic Response of Pultruded Glass-Graphite/Epoxy Hybrid Composites Subjected to Transverse High Strain-Rate Compression Loading

In a previous study, the energy absorption and dynamic response of different combinations of cylindrical fiber-reinforced pultruded hybrid composite samples made of unidirectional glass and graphite fiber/epoxy, were investigated under longitudinal compression loading. It was found that placing glass fibers in the inner core of composites resulted in a higher ultimate compressive strength and specific energy absorption. In this study, the dynamic responses of pultruded glass-graphite/epoxy hybrid specimens with rectangular cross-section subjected to transverse compression loading are reported. Crack initiation and propagation was monitored using a high-speed video camera, and the effects of hybridization were analyzed. It was found that the location of glass or graphite fibers inside the pultruded composites has no significant effect on the ultimate compressive strength under such transverse compression loading. The energy absorption in all the hybrid specimens was almost identical. Graphite/epoxy composite showed higher specific energy absorption due to its lower density, and glass/epoxy composite had the lowest specific energy absorption.

Energy Absorption of Pultruded Glass-Graphite/Epoxy Hybrid Composites under High Strain-Rate Induced Transverse Tension

This paper focuses on the dynamic tensile response of glass-graphite/epoxy composites illustrating improvement in energy absorption through hybridization. The dynamic response and energy absorption characteristics of pultruded hybrid combinations of glass and graphite fibers in an epoxy matrix subjected to induced transverse tension at high strain-rate in a modified Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) apparatus, are presented. Transverse tensile strength was determined by diametral compression of disc samples (Brazilian indirect tensile test method). Diametral crack initiation and strain to failure were monitored with a Shimadzu HPV-2 high-speed video camera at a recording speed of 500,000 fps and Digital Image Correlation (DIC). Adequate measures were taken to ensure that initiation of specimen failure occurred at the exact center of the disc specimen, and propagated through the diameter along the compressive loading axis, for the induced transverse tension tests to be valid. A study of the strength and specific energy absorption demonstrates the benefits of hybridization. Under induced transverse tensile loading condition, the pure glass/epoxy (GL60) exhibited higher strength than pure graphite/epoxy (GR60). Pure graphite/epoxy (GR60) has higher specific energy absorption capacity than pure glass/epoxy (GL60) in transverse tension. Among all hybrids, GR30 has the highest specific energy absorption under transverse tension. Overall, hybrid GL48, with 48% low-cost glass fibers in the inner core and 12% high-cost graphite fibers in outer shell, was found to exhibit better performance under induced transverse tension at high strain-rates, showing the benefits of hybridization.

Superplastic deformation of commercial OOCr22Ni5Mo3N0.17 duplex stainless steel

The superplastic behavior of a commercial duplex stainless steel has beenstudied by means of isothermal hot tensile test at temperatures of 850-1050 deg C for the initialstrain rates ranging from 3X10^(-4) s^(-1) to 5X10^(-2) s^(-1). At 960 deg C, the best superplasticdeformation that caused the maximum elongation greater than 840 percent was obtained for an initialstrain rate of 1.2X10^(-3) s^(-1). At 850 deg C, the best elongation 500 percent was achieved for aninitial strain rate of 2.5X10^(-3) s^(-1) During the deformation in higher temperature region,coarse gamma grains formed during the prior treatments were broken into spherical particles,resulting in a homogeneous dispersion of gamma particles within the delta-ferrite matrix. However,at lower temperatures between 800 and 950 deg C, the sigma phase was formed through the eutectoiddecomposition of delta->gamma+sigma, resulting finally in the stable equiaxed micro-duplexstructures with delta/gamma and gamma/sigma respectively. The precipitation of the sigma phaseplayed an important role in improving the superplasticity at 850 deg C. The strain-rate sensitivitycoefficient, m-values, were also determined by the strain rate change tests. The microstructurestudies show that the superplastic process occurs mainly by the local work hardening and thesubsequent dynamic recrystallization and a grain boundary sliding and grain switching mechanism.

热脱附谱方法的脱附速率灵敏度与四极质谱仪参数关系的实验研究

为了获得热脱附谱(TDS)方法的脱附速率灵敏度与四极质谱仪(QMS)参数的关系,以优化TDS高灵敏度分析的条件和参数,采用一种特制的通导型校准漏孔,基于QMS对氢同位素释放速率的二次离子检测(SEM)模式,研究了QMS仪器参数对TDS氘气脱附速率灵敏度的影响规律。实验结果表明,QMS的参数对TDS的氘气脱附速率灵敏度具有明显的影响,获得了实现TDS高灵敏度分析的QMS参数范围:发射电流1 000～1 400μA;离子能量(栅极电压)3～3.5V;电子能量50～70V;聚焦电压-100～-60V;分辨率-5～+5。

融资约束与盈余管理的实证研究——基于中国传播与文化产业上市公司的数据

选取2007—2012年传播与文化产业上市公司样本数据,运用现金-现金敏感性模型衡量公司受到的融资约束程度,并通过回归模型进行了验证,结果稳健地证明现金-现金流敏感系数显著为正,说明我国传播与文化产业上市公司存在严重的融资约束;同时,发现盈余管理在一定程度上能使公司受到更大程度的融资约束,特别是正向的盈余管理比负向的盈余管理对融资约束的作用更显著。优化公司治理结构、发挥董事会与监事会的职权、持续的盈利为企业的投资和融资提供保证是我国传播与文化产业缓解融资约束的有效途径。

The effect of strain rate on compressive behavior and failure mechanism of CMDB propellant

The compressive mechanical behavior of composite modified double base(CMDB)propellant was investigated across a wide scope of strain rates ranging from 10^(-3) s^(-1) to 4210 s^(-1) at room temperature,by applying a conventional universal testing machine and a split Hopkinson tension bar(SHPB),respectively.The derived stress-strain curves at different strain rates show a strong rate dependence,indicated that yield stress,ultimate stress and strain energy density of CMDB propellant all increase with strain rate by following a power law function,while the amplification of increase are different.The deformation and damage modes of CMDB propellant has changed from a typical ductile manner(cracking along the axial direction)to a brittle manner(maximum shear failure)with increasing of strain rate.Scanning electron microscopy(SEM)was employed to explore the microscopic failure characteristics of CMDB propellant.Under quasi-static loading,the nearly parallel micro-cracks propagating along the axial direction and the debonding of RDX particle without particle crushing can be observed.While under dynamic loading,the micro-crack is 45 angle to the axial direction,and multiple cracking modes of RDX particles appeared.Finally,the correlation between strain energy density and failure mechanisms of CMDB propellant was revealed by developing four characteristic failure modes.The findings of this study is very important to evaluate the structural integrity of CMDB propellant.

Early Detection of Regional and Global Left Ventricular Myocardial Function Using Strain and Strain-rate Imaging in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome

Background：Strain and strain-rate imaging （SRI） have been found clinically useful in the assessment of cardiac systolic and diastolic function as well as providing new insights in deciphering cardiac physiology and mechanics in cardiomyopathies,and identifying early subclinical changes in various pathologies.The aim of this study was to evaluate the regional and global left ventricular （LV） myocardial function in metabolic syndrome （MS） with SRI so that we can provide more myocardial small lesions in patients with MS,which is robust and reliable basis for early detection of LV function.Methods：Thirty-nine adults with MS were enrolled in the study.There was a control group of 39 healthy adults.In addition to classic echocardiographic assessment of LV global functional changes,SRI was used to evaluate regional and global LV function.Including：Peak systolic strain （S）,peak systolic strain-rate （SR-s）,peak diastolic strain-rate （SR-e）.Results：There were no statistically significant differences between MS and controls in all traditional parameters of LV systolic function.On the other hand,significant differences were observed between MS and the control group in most of the parameters of S,SR-s,SR-e in regional LV function.Multiple stepwise regression analyses revealed that S and SR significantly were negatively correlated with blood pressure,waist circumference,fasting plasma glucose,uric acid,suggesting that risk factories were relevant to regional systolic dysfunction.Conclusion：In MS with normal LV ejection fraction,there was regional myocardial dysfunction,risk factors contributed to the impairment of systolic and diastolic function of the regional myocardium.Assessment of myocardial function using SRI could be more accurate in MS patient evaluation than conventional echocardiography alone.

Earthquake safety assessment of concrete arch and gravity dams

Based on research studies currently being carried out at Dalian University of Technology, some important aspects for the earthquake safety assessmcnt of concrete dams are reviewed and discussed. First, the rate-dependent behavior of concrcte subjected to earthquake loading is examined, emphasizing the properties of concrete under cyclic and biaxial loading conditions. Second, a modified four-parameter Hsieh-Ting-Chen viscoplastic consistency model is developed to simulate the rate-dependent behavior of concrete. The earthquake response of a 278m high arch dam is analyzed, and the results show that the strain-rate effects become noticeable in the inelastic range, Third, a more accurate non-smooth Newton algorithm for the solution of three-dimensional frictional contact problems is developed to study the joint opening effects of arch dams during strong earthquakes. Such effects on two nearly 300m high arch dams have been studied. It was found that the canyon shape has great influence on the magnitude and distribution of the joint opening along the dam axis. Fourth, the scaled boundary finite element method presented by Song and Wolf is employed to study the dam-reservoir-foundation interaction effects of concrete dams. Particular emphases were placed on the variation of foundation stiffness and the anisotropic behavior of the foundation material on the dynamic response of concrete dams. Finally, nonlinear modeling of concrete to study the damage evolution of concrete dams during strong earthquakes is discussed. An elastic-damage mechanics approach for damage prediction of concrete gravity dams is described as an example. These findings are helpful in understanding the dynamic behavior of concrete dams and promoting the improvement of seismic safety assessment methods.

Unveiling the underlying mechanism of forming edge cracks upon high strain-rate rolling of magnesium alloy

In the current study,high strain-rate rolling(≥10 s-1) has been successfully employed to produce Mg-3 A1-1 Zn alloy sheets to a high reduction of 82% with a fine grain structure in a single pass.The underlying mechanism of forming primary and secondary edge cracks has been investigated.It is found that dynamic recrystallization(DRX) induced by subgrains tends to blunt cracks,while twinning-induced D RX is mainly observed around sharp crack tips.The motion of emitted dislocations from blunted cracks is inhibited by the DRX grain boundaries.This,on one hand,increases local work hardening,and on the other hand,causes stress concentration alo ng grain boundaries especially in the triple junctions leading to the formation of secondary cracks.

Dynamic tensile behaviors of AZ31B magnesium alloy processed by twin-roll casting and sequential hot rolling

The dynamic tensile behavior of twin-roll cast-rolled and hot-rolled AZ31B magnesium alloy was characterized over strainrates ranging from 0.001 to 375 s^-1 at room temperature using an elaborate dynamic tensile testing method, and the relationshipbetween its mechanical properties and microstructures. It is observed that the sheet has a strong initial basal fiber texture andmechanical twinning becomes prevalent to accommodate the high-rate deformation. The yield strength and ultimate tensile strengthmonotonically increase with increasing the strain rate, while the strain hardening exponent proportionally decreases with increasingthe strain rate due to twinning-induced softening. The total elongation at fracture distinctly decreases as the strain rate increasesunder quasi-static tension, while the effect of strain rate on the total elongation is not distinct under dynamic tension. Fractographicanalysis using a scanning electron microscope reveals that the fracture is a mixed mode of ductile and brittle fracture.

Practical elasto-plastic damage model for dynamic loading and nonlinear analysis of Koyna concrete dam

The elasto-plastic damage model for concrete under static loading,previously proposed,was extended to account for the concrete strain-rate through viscous regularization of the evolution of the damage variables.In order to describe the energy dissipation by the motion of the structure under dynamic loading,a damping model which only includes stiffness damp stress was proposed and incorporated into the proposed rate dependent model to consider the energy dissipation at the material scale.The proposed model was developed in ABAQUS via UMAT and was verified by the simulations of concrete specimens under both tension and compression uniaxial loading at different strain rates.The nonlinear analysis of Koyna concrete dam under earthquake motions indicates that adding stiffness damp into the constitutive model can significantly enhance the calculation efficiency of the dynamic implicit analysis for greatly improving the numerical stability of the model.Considering strain rate effect in the model can affect the displacement reflection of this structure for slightly enhancing the displacement of the top,and can improve the calculation efficiency for greatly reducing the cost time.

Viscoplastic Damage-Softening Constitutive Model for Concrete Subjected to Uniaxial Dynamic Compression

A new viscoplastic damage-softening constitutive model is presented. It is developed by integrating a Bodner-Partom viscoplastic model with a newdamage evolution equation. A set of ordinary differential equations（ ODEs） is formulated,and a Runge-Kutta integral method is used to get stress-strain curves given by the model. Also,stress-strain curves of a wide range of strain-rates for concrete were obtained by split Hopkinson pressure bar（ SHPB） tests. By fitting the integral stressstrain curves to the experimental ones with the least square optimization method,we determined the material parameters in our model. Some properties of the newmodel,such as strain-rate sensitivity,damage evolution characteristics,strain-rate jump effects and unloading feature,are explored.These results showthat our new model can describe dynamic behaviors of concrete very well,and our integrating-fitting-optimizing method to get material parameters is valid.

Dual-level stress plateaus in honeycombs subjected to impact loading:perspectives from bucklewaves, buckling and cell-wall progressive folding

Dual-level stress plateaus (i.e., relatively short peak stress plateaus, followed by prolonged crushing stress plateaus) in metallic hexagonal honeycombs subjected to out-of-plane impact loading are characterized using a combined numerical and analytical study, with the influence of the strain-rate sensitivity of the honeycomb pare nt material accounted for. The predicti ons are validated against existing experimental measurements, and good agreement is achieved. It is demonstrated that honeycombs exhibit dual-level stress plateaus when bucklewaves are initiated and propagate in cell walls, followed by buckling and progressive folding of the cell walls. The abrupt stress drop from peak to crushing plateau in the compressive stress versus strain curve can be explained in a way similar to the quasi-static buckling of a clamped plate. The duration of the peak stress plateau is more evident for strain-rate insensitive honeycombs.

Processing map and hot working mechanisms of Cu-Ag alloy in hot compression process

For Gu-Ag alloy, an important parameter called workability in the forming process of materials can be evaluated by processing maps yielded from the stress-strain data generated by hot compression tests at temperatures of 700-850 °C and strain rates of 0.01-10 s-1. And at the true strain of 0.15, 0.35 and 0.55, respectively, the responses of strain-rate sensitivity, power dissipation efficiency and instability parameter to temperature and strain rate were studied. Instability maps and power dissipation maps were superimposed to form processing maps, which reveal the determinate regions where individual metallurgical processes occur and the limiting conditions of flow instability regions. Furthermore, the optimal processing parameters for bulk metal working are identified clearly by the processing maps.