Evolution of microstructure and properties of a novel Ni-based superalloy during stress relief annealing

We discussed the decrease in residual stress,precipitation evolution,and mechanical properties of GH4151 alloy in different annealing temperatures,which were studied by the scanning electron microscope(SEM),high-resolution transmission electron microscopy(HRTEM),and electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD).The findings reveal that annealing processing has a significant impact on diminishing residual stresses.As the annealing temperature rose from 950 to 1150℃,the majority of the residual stresses were relieved from 60.1 MPa down to 10.9 MPa.Moreover,the stress relaxation mechanism transitioned from being mainly controlled by dislocation slip to a combination of dislocation slip and grain boundary migration.Meanwhile,the annealing treatment promotes the decomposition of the Laves,accompanied by the precipitation ofμ-(Mo_(6)Co_(7))starting at 950℃ and reaching a maximum value at 1050℃.The tensile strength and plasticity of the annealing alloy at 1150℃ reached the maximum(1394 MPa,56.1%)which was 131%,200%fold than those of the as-cast alloy(1060 MPa,26.6%),but the oxidation process in the alloy was accelerated at 1150℃.The enhancement in durability and flexibility is primarily due to the dissolution of the brittle phase,along with the shape and dispersal of theγ′phase.

Residual stress modeling of mitigated fused silica damage sites with CO_(2)laser annealing

A numerical model based on measured fictive temperature distributions is explored to evaluate the residual stress fields of CO_(2)laser-annealed mitigated fused silica damage sites.The proposed model extracts the residual strain from the differences in thermoelastic contraction of fused silica with different fictive temperatures from the initial frozen-in temperatures to ambient temperature.The residual stress fields of mitigated damage sites for the CO_(2)laser-annealed case are obtained by a finite element analysis of equilibrium equations and constitutive equations.The simulated results indicate that the proposed model can accurately evaluate the residual stress fields of laser-annealed mitigated damage sites with a complex thermal history.The calculated maximum hoop stress is in good agreement with the reported experimental result.The estimated optical retardance profiles from the calculated radial and hoop stress fields are consistent with the photoelastic measurements.These results provide sufficient evidence to demonstrate the suitability of the proposed model for describing the residual stresses of mitigated fused silica damage sites after CO_(2)laser annealing.

A modified smoothed particle hydrodynamics method considering residual stress for simulating failure and its application in layered rock mass

Residual strength is an indispensable factor in evaluating rock fracture,yet the current Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics(SPH)framework rarely considers its influence when simulating fracture.An improved cracking strategy considering residual stress in the base bond SPH method was proposed to simulate failures in layered rocks and slopes and verified by experimental results and other simulation methods(i.e.,the discrete element method).Modified Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion was applied to distinguish the mixed failure of tensile and shear.Bond fracture markψwas introduced to improve the kernel function after tensile damage,and the calculation of residual stress after the damage was derived after shear damage.Numerical simulations were carried out to evaluate its performance under different stress and scale conditions and to verify its effectiveness in realistically reproducing crack initiation and propagation and coalescence,even fracture and separation.The results indicate that the improved cracking strategy precisely captures the fracture and failure pattern in layered rocks and rock slopes.The residual stress of brittle tock is correctly captured by the improved SPH method.The improved SPH method that considers residual strength shows an approximately 13%improvement in accuracy for the safety factor of anti-dip layered slopes compared to the method that does not consider residual strength,as validated against analytical solutions.We infer that the improved SPH method is effective and shows promise for applications to continuous and discontinuous rock masses.

Effect of quenching cooling rate on residual stress and microstructure evolution of 6061 aluminum alloy

In this study,the cooling rate was manipulated by quenching with water of different temperatures(30,60 and 100℃).Surface and internal residual stresses in the quenched 6061 aluminum alloy samples were measured using hole-drilling and crack compliance methods,respectively.Then,the processability of the quenched samples was evaluated at cryogenic temperatures.The mechanical properties of the as-aged samples were assessed,and microstructure evolution was analyzed.The surface residual stresses of samples W30℃,W60℃and W100℃is−178.7,−161.7 and−117.2 MPa,respectively along x-direction,respectively;and−191.2,−172.1 and−126.2 MPa,respectively along y-direction.The sample quenched in boiling water displaying the lowest residual stress(~34%and~60%reduction in the surface and core).The generation and distribution of quenching residual stress could be attributed to the lattice distortion gradient.Desirable plasticity was also exhibited in the samples with relatively low quenching cooling rates at cryogenic temperatures.The strengthes of the as-aged samples are 291.2 to 270.1 MPa as the quenching water temperature increase from 30℃to 100℃.Fine and homogeneous β"phases were observed in the as-aged sample quenched with boiling water due to the clusters and Guinier-Preston zones(GP zones)premature precipitated during quenching process.

Disturbance failure mechanism of highly stressed rock in deep excavation:Current status and prospects

This article reviews the current status on the dynamic behavior of highly stressed rocks under disturbances.Firstly,the experimental apparatus,methods,and theories related to the disturbance dynamics of deep,high-stress rock are reviewed,followed by the introduction of scholars’research on deep rock deformation and failure from an energy perspective.Subsequently,with a backdrop of highstress phenomena in deep hard rock,such as rock bursts and core disking,we delve into the current state of research on rock microstructure analysis and residual stresses from the perspective of studying the energy storage mechanisms in rocks.Thereafter,the current state of research on the mechanical response and the energy dissipation of highly stressed rock formations is briefly retrospected.Finally,the insufficient aspects in the current research on the disturbance and failure mechanisms in deep,highly stressed rock formations are summarized,and prospects for future research are provided.This work provides new avenues for the research on the mechanical response and damage-fracture mechanisms of rocks under high-stress conditions.

An Experimental Artificial Neural Network Model:Investigating and Predicting Effects of Quenching Process on Residual Stresses of AISI 1035 Steel Alloy

The present study establishes a new estimation model using an artificial neural network(ANN) to predict the mechanical properties of the AISI 1035 alloy.The experiments were designed based on the L16 orthogonal array of the Taguchi method.A proposed numerical model for predicting the correlation of mechanical properties was supplemented with experimental data.The quenching process was conducted using a cooling medium called “nanofluids”.Nanoparticles were dissolved in a liquid phase at various concentrations(0.5%,1%,2.5%,and 5% vf) to prepare the nanofluids.Experimental investigations were done to assess the impact of temperature,base fluid,volume fraction,and soaking time on the mechanical properties.The outcomes showed that all conditions led to a noticeable improvement in the alloy's hardness which reached 100%,the grain size was refined about 80%,and unwanted residual stresses were removed from 50 to 150 MPa.Adding 5% of CuO nanoparticles to oil led to the best grain size refinement,while adding 2.5% of Al_(2)O_(3) nanoparticles to engine oil resulted in the greatest compressive residual stress.The experimental variables were used as the input data for the established numerical ANN model,and the mechanical properties were the output.Upwards of 99% of the training network's correlations seemed to be positive.The estimated result,nevertheless,matched the experimental dataset exactly.Thus,the ANN model is an effective tool for reflecting the effects of quenching conditions on the mechanical properties of AISI 1035.

Additive manufacturing of Ni-based superalloys: Residual stress, mechanisms of crack formation and strategies for crack inhibition

The additive manufacturing(AM)of Ni-based superalloys has attracted extensive interest from both academia and industry due to its unique capabilities to fabricate complex and high-performance components for use in high-end industrial systems.However,the intense temperature gradient induced by the rapid heating and cooling processes of AM can generate high levels of residual stress and metastable chemical and structural states,inevitably leading to severe metallurgical defects in Ni-based superalloys.Cracks are the greatest threat to these materials’integrity as they can rapidly propagate and thereby cause sudden and non-predictable failure.Consequently,there is a need for a deeper understanding of residual stress and cracking mechanisms in additively manufactured Ni-based superalloys and ways to potentially prevent cracking,as this knowledge will enable the wider application of these unique materials.To this end,this paper comprehensively reviews the residual stress and the various mechanisms of crack formation in Ni-based superalloys during AM.In addition,several common methods for inhibiting crack formation are presented to assist the research community to develop methods for the fabrication of crack-free additively manufactured components.

A review on stress determination and control in metal-based additive manufacturing

Metal additive manufacturing(MAM)is an emerging and disruptive technology that builds three-dimensional(3D)components by adding layer-upon-layer of metallic materials.The complex cyclic thermal history and highly localized energy can produce large temperature gradients,which will,in turn,lead to compressive and tensile stress during the MAM process and eventually result in residual stress.Being an issue of great concern,residual stress,which can cause distortion,delamination,cracking,etc.,is considered a key mechanical quantity that affects the manufacturing quality and service performance of MAM parts.In this review paper,the ongoing work in the field of residual stress determination and control for MAM is described with a particular emphasis on the experimental measurement/control methods and numerical models.We also provide insight on what still requires to be achieved and the research opportunities and challenges.

Application of Nonlinear Lamb Wave Mixing Method for Residual Stress Measurement in Metal Plate

Harmonic nonlinear ultrasound can offer high sensitivity for residual stress measurements;however,it cannot be used for local stress measurements at a point in space and exhibits nonlinear distortions in the experimental system.This paper presents a feasibility study on the measurement of residual stress in a metal plate using a nonlinear Lamb wave-mixing technique.The resonant conditions for two Lamb waves to generate a mixing frequency wave are obtained via theoretical analysis.Finite element simulations are performed to investigate the nonlinear interactions between the two Lamb waves.Results show that two incident A0 waves interact in regions of material nonlinearity and generate a rightward S0 wave at the sum frequency.Residual stress measurement experiments are conducted on steel plate specimens using the collinear Lamb wave-mixing technique.By setting different delays for two transmitters,the generated sum-frequency component at different spatial locations is measured.Experimental results show that the spatial distribution of the amplitude of the sum-frequency component agrees well with the spatial distribution of the residual stress measured using X-rays.The proposed collinear Lamb wave-mixing method is effective for measuring the distribution of residual stress in metal plates.

Residual stress measurement and analysis of siliceous slate-containing quartz veins

Engineering geological disasters such as rockburst have always been a critical factor affecting the safety of coal mine production.Thus,residual stress is considered a feasible method to explain these geomechanical phenomena.In this study,electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)and optical microscopy were used to characterize the rock microcosm.A measuring area that met the requirements of X-ray diffraction(XRD)residual stress measurement was determined to account for the mechanism of rock residual stress.Then,the residual stress of a siliceous slate-containing quartz vein was measured and calculated using the sin^(2) ϕ method equipped with an X-ray diffractometer.Analysis of microscopic test results showed homogeneous areas with small particles within the millimeter range,meeting the requirements of XRD stress measurement statistics.Quartz was determined as the calibration mineral for slate samples containing quartz veins.The diffraction patterns of the(324)crystal plane were obtained under different ϕ and φ.The deviation direction of the diffraction peaks was consistent,indicating that the sample tested had residual stress.In addition,the principal residual stress within the quartz vein measured by XRD was compressive,ranging from 10 to 33 MPa.The maximum principal stress was parallel to the vein trend,whereas the minimum principal stress was perpendicular to the vein trend.Furthermore,the content of the low-angle boundary and twin boundary in the quartz veins was relatively high,which enhances the resistance of the rock mass to deformation and promotes the easy formation of strain concentrations,thereby resulting in residual stress.The proposed method for measuring residual stress can serve as a reference for subsequent observation and related research on residual stress in different types of rocks.

Residual Stresses and Forming Quality of Metal Bipolar Plates for PEMFC During the Stamping Process

Stamping is a critical step in the manufacture of metallic bipolar plates.Typically,residual stress and a spring back effect appear on the bipolar plate after the stamping process,which impacts on the performance and lifetime of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell(PEMFC).The residual stress and spring back behavior which occur as a result of stamping a bipolar plate are investigated in this study.The effects of the punch radius,the die radius,the channel depth,and the clearance between the punch and the die on the residual stress and forming quality of the bipolar plate are examined.The stamping process can be divided into three stages.The high stress area and the middle section residual stress area were selected to study the formation process and to obtain the composition of the residual stress regions.Spring back was mainly related to the position of the fixed end of the sheet and the degree of plastic deformation,and the sheet thickness have increased by 2μm after spring back.Based on the results of finite element analysis,as described by the distribution of residual stress,the formation,the thickness of the middle cross section and the equivalent plastic strain,it was found that all the tool parameters affected the distribution of the residual stress.This research can provide a design reference for the manufacture of metallic bipolar plates based on the stamping process.

Stress-Induced Deformation of Thin Copper Substrate in Double-Sided Lapping

Double-sided lapping is an precision machining method capable of obtaining high-precision surface.However,during the lapping process of thin pure copper substrate,the workpiece will be warped due to the influence of residual stress,including the machining stress and initial residual stress,which will deteriorate the flatness of the workpiece and ultimately affect the performance of components.In this study,finite element method(FEM)was adopted to study the effect of residual stress-related on the deformation of pure copper substrate during double-sided lapping.Considering the initial residual stress of the workpiece,the stress caused by the lapping and their distribution characteristics,a prediction model was proposed for simulating workpiece machining deformation in lapping process by measuring the material removal rate of the upper and lower surfaces of the workpiece under the corresponding parameters.The results showed that the primary cause of the warping deformation of the workpiece in the doublesided lapping is the redistribution of initial residual stress caused by uneven material removal on the both surfaces.The finite element simulation results were in good agreement with the experimental results.

Residual stress with asymmetric spray quenching for thick aluminum alloy plates

Solution and quenching heat treatments are generally carried out in a roller hearth furnace for large-scale thick aluminum alloy plates.However,the asymmetric or uneven spray water flow rate is inevitable under industrial production conditions,which leads to an asymmetric residual stress distribution.The spray quenching treatment was conducted on self-designed spray equipment,and the residual stress along the thickness direction was measured by a layer removal method based on deflections.Under the asymmetric spray quenching condition,the subsurface stress of the high-flow rate surface was lower than that of the low-flow rate surface,and the difference between the two subsurface stresses increased with the increase in the difference in water flow rates.The subsurface stress underneath the surface with a water flow rate of 0.60 m^(3)/h was 15.38 MPa less than that of 0.15 m^(3)/h.The simulated residual stress by finite element(FE)method of the high heat transfer coefficient(HTC)surface was less than that of the low HTC surface,which is consistent with the experimental results.The FE model can be used to analyze the strain and stress evolution and predict the quenched stress magnitude and distribution.

Residual Stress Distribution of Si_(3)N_(4)/SiC Gradient Material and the Effect of Residual Stress on Material Properties

The Si_(3)N_(4)/SiC gradient material with a gradient composition structure was prepared by a hot pressing sintering.The sinterability,distribution of residual stress and the effect of residual stress on mechanical properties of Si_(3)N_(4)/SiC gradient materials were studied.The research results show that,at 1750℃,Si_(3)N_(4)/SiC gradient materials with different ratios can achieve co-sintering,and the overall relative density of the sample reaches 98.5%.Interestingly,the flexural strength of Si_(3)N_(4)/SiC gradient material is related to its loading surface.The flexural strength of SiC as the loading surface is about 35%higher than that of Si_(3)N_(4)as the loading surface.The analysis of the residual stress of the material in the gradient structure shows that the gradient stress distribution between the two phases is a vital factor affecting the mechanical properties of the material.With the increase of SiC content in the gradient direction,the fracture toughness of each layer of Si_(3)N_(4)/SiC gradient materials gradually decreases.The surface hardness of the pure SiC side is lower than that reported in other literature.

Study of residual stresses and distortions from the Ti6Al4V based thinwalled geometries built using LPBF process

The current paper focuses on the prediction of residual stresses and distortions in the Laser Powder Bed Fusion(LPBF)built Ti6Al4V thin-walled geometries using Ansys Additive Print(AAP)software which employs a layer-by-layer accumulation of inherent strain to calculate the deformations.Isotropic and anisotropic strain scaling factors were calibrated initially within the APP software for the Ti6Al4V based single cantilever beam geometry.Subsequently,the numerical simulations were performed in APP software and computed the residual stresses and distortions for the varied process parameters including laser power,scan speed and hatch distance while maintaining the layer thickness constant for all the design iterations.The numerical predictions were compared;they were found to match reasonably well with the XRD measurements within the calibrated regime.

Fatigue Life Prediction for SiC/Al Materials Based on Path Planning Algorithm Considering Residual Stress

To explore the influence of path deflection on crack propagation,a path planning algorithm is presented to calculate the crack growth length.The fatigue crack growth life of metal matrix composites(MMCs)is estimated based on an improved Paris formula.Considering the different expansion coefficient of different materials,the unequal shrinkage will lead to residual stress when the composite is molded and cooled.The crack growth model is improved by the modified stress ratio based on residual stress.The Dijkstra algorithm is introduced to avoid the cracks passing through the strengthening base and the characteristics of crack steps.This model can be extended to predict crack growth length for other similarly-structured composite materials.The shortest path of crack growth is simulated by using path planning algorithm,and the fatigue life of composites is calculated based on the shortest path and improved model.And the residual stress caused by temperature change is considered to improve the fatigue crack growth model in the material.The improved model can well predict the fatigue life curve of composites.By analyzing the fatigue life of composites,it is found that there is a certain regularity based on metal materials,and the new fatigue prediction model can also reflect this regularity.

Mechanism investigation and strategies for reducing residual stress at open ends of the roll-formed part

Increasing geometrical accuracy at open ends of the roll-formed part is difficult due to the release of residual stress after end cutting.In this work,a typical rail with a high requirement of geometry accuracy was selected to realize the behaviors of residual stress release.First,residual stress distribution after roll forming is discussed in detail by finite element analysis with ABAQUS.In addition,two different approaches are proposed to check their capabilities in reducing the residual stress level.The results indicate that both additional rolling passes and multiple bending processes are beneficial to reducing uniform residual stress.

A Way to Determine the Maximum Inducible Residual Stresses in Steel by Mechanical Surface Treatment

The issue of determining the maximum compressive residual stress that can be induced through mechanical surface treatment is of great significance.There are two possible approaches,namely stress peening and stress rolling,both to determine the limit.Steel with high hardness may be under the yield strength,while for those with lower tensile strength,the hardness is increased,and the limit is above the tensile strength.

Residual Stress and Fracture Toughness Study in A516 Gr70 Steel Joints Welded and Repaired by Arc Processes

Structural components made of steel are used in several areas and require welding for assembly. In some situations, repair of the weld bead, also performed by electric arc welding, can be used to correct, and eliminate any discontinuities. However, electric arc welding causes the presence of residual stresses in the joint, which can impair its performance and not meet specific design requirements. In this paper, welded joints made of ASTM A 516 GR 70 steel plates, with a thickness of 30.5 mm, welded by the MAG—Metal Active Gas process (20% CO2) and using a “K” groove were analysed. The joints were manufactured with seven welding passes on each side of the groove. After welding, one batch underwent repair of the bead by TIG welding (Tungsten Insert Gas) and another batch underwent two repairs by TIG welding. Were presented results of the behaviour of the residual stress profile measured by X-ray diffraction and the Vickers microhardness profile in the joints as well the fracture toughness in the conditions only welded and submitted to repairs. The results indicated that the greater number of repair passes reduced the residual compressive stress values obtained in the material manufacturing process and caused a stabilization on the Vickers hardness values. It was concluded that compressive residual stresses did not play a major role in the R-curve results. The presence of discontinuities in the welded joint caused greater influence on the behaviour of the R curve.

Literature Review of Electronic Packaging Technology and Residual Stress

The rapid development of the electronic information industry brings to the irreplaceable role of electronic components, therefore the search of a more reliable packaging material has become increasingly important. In the electronic packaging system, the failure phenomenon caused by residual stress is one of the key factors restricting the development of electronic packaging technology. In order to use the in-situ characterization technology to explore the residual stress inducing mechanism and failure mechanism of epoxy-based advanced packaging materials, this paper gives a review of related previous research, and lays a theoretical foundation for the upcoming research. The classification and generation mechanism of residual stress are clarified in this paper, which provides data support for future related research.