Calculatons of the Electron Radius

Equating the Rest Mass Energy of a free electron to its Rest Charge Energy we prove that the electron cannot be a dimensionless point particle because if it were dimensionless, it would contain an infinite amount of Rest Charge Energy at the location of its charge since r = 0 gives , which is clearly not possible. Since the electron has no internal structure, equating its Rest Mass Energy to its Rest Charge Energy, we calculate the electron to be a sphere of radius 4.68 × 10-16 meters. We calculate the Electric Field at the surface of the electron due to its charge and the Repulsive Force two electrons in proximity exert on each other.

Refinement of the Proposed Gamma-Ray Burst Time Delay Model

This paper is the second instalment in our study of the observed time delay in the arrival times of radio photons emanating from Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs). The mundane assumption in contemporary physics as to the cause of these pondersome time delays is that they are a result of the photon being endowed with a non-zero mass. While we do not rule out the possibility of a non-zero mass for the photon, our working assumption is that the major cause of these time delays may very well be that these photons are travelling in a rarefied cosmic plasma in which the medium’s electrons interact with the electric component of the Photon, thus generating tiny currents that lead to dispersion, hence, a frequency-dependent speed of Light (FDSL). In the present instalment, we “improve” on the model presented in the first instalment by dropping the assumption that the resultant pairs of these radio photons leave the shock front simultaneously. The new assumption of a non-simultaneous— albeit systematic—emission of these photon pairs allows us to obtain a much more convincing and stronger correlation in the time delay. This new correlation allows us to build a unified model for the four GRBs in our sample using a relative distance correction mechanism. The new unified model allows us to obtain as our most significant result a value for the frequency equivalence of the interstellar medium (ISM)’s conductance ν* ~ 1.500 ± 0.009 Hzand also an independent distance measure to the GRBs where we obtain for our four GRB samples an average distance of: ~69.40 ± 0.10, 40.00 ± 0.00, 58.40 ± 0.40, and 86.00 ± 1.00 Mpc, for GRB 030329, 980425, 000418 and 021004 respectively.

Variations of the Speed of Light with Frequency and Implied Photon Mass

A general frequency-dependent dispersion relation of the speed of light in different mediums （vacuum, insulator, plasma） is deduced based on the Proca equations. Several recent astronomical observations of the pulsars are used to set the limits on the photon rest mass by this method and several upper bounds of larger than one order improvement than previous similar results are obtained. Considering the dispersion of the massive photon, the possible upper limits on the photon rest mass are also derived from the recently experimental results for testing the constancy of the speed of light in special relativity.

A New Theory of the Essence and Mass of Photon

Many properties of a single photon, such as density, rest mass, and orbital angular momentum, are still unknown. In a previous study, the photon was presented as a superfluid prolate spheroid structure, with a long-axis radius, short-axis radius, and volume, embodied with two spins—transversal and longitudinal—which are responsible for the three-dimensional helical trajectory of the electromagnetic wave. In this study, the rest mass, density, and energy of photon are mathematically derived, and the relationship between the radius of photon and its frequency is demonstrated. In addition, the difference between the Compton and de Broglie wavelengths is clarified. The calculated density, volume, and rest mass of photon agree with previous experimental results. The photon’s simultaneous longitudinal and transversal spins are moving forces of longitudinal and transversal trajectories, which are the origin of the three-dimensional helix shape of the electromagnetic field. A new mechanism for the photon movement is proposed, and the reason for the zero mass moving photon is revealed;a traveling photon in space exhibits zero mass because its boundaries demonstrate zero relative velocity with the surrounding vacuum. The orbital angular momentum of photon is described using similar macroscopic rotation concepts and applying hydrodynamics laws. A rotating photon is endowed with an angular velocity vector whose magnitude measures the speed with which the radius of the principal axis sweeps an angle, and whose direction indicates the principal axis of rotation and is given by the right-hand rule. The deviation angle is calculated using trigonometric functions, and the origin of the Lorenz factor is revealed.

The Mass and Size of Photons in the 5-Dimensional Extended Space Model

We propose the generalization of Einstein’s special theory of relativity (STR). In our model, we use the (1 + 4)-dimensional space G, which is the extension of the (1 + 3)-dimensional Minkowski space M. As a fifth additional coordinate, the interval S is used. This value is constant under the usual Lorentz transformations in M, but it changes when the transformations in the extended space G are used. We call this model the Extended space model (ESM). From a physical point of view, our expansion means that processes in which the rest mass of the particles changes are acceptable now. In the ESM, gravity and electromagnetism are combined in one field. In the ESM, a photon can have a nonzero mass and this mass can be either positive or negative. It is also possible to establish in the frame of ESM connection between mass of a particle and its size.

Accurate Solution to the Gravitational Bending of Starlight by a Massive Object

An exact solution to the gravitational bending of starlight is derived without resorting to general relativity. The accurate solution can be reduced to the result as obtained by general relativity under special conditions. For objects with a larger mass and a smaller radius, the approximated result as obtained by Schwartzchild’s metric based on general relativity will be invalid. A century-long misunderstanding about the deflection of light by gravity based on the classical theory will also be clarified.

Star Mass Inertia Dictates the Speed of Light

This paper indicated that Newton’s law of gravitation is a statistical relation of two adjacent objects with a distance and Einstein’s general relativity shows the internal connection of material distribution through space-time warping in our universe so general relativity is referred as a gravity theory. Here the paper gives an extension of general relativity in the sense of the metric theory of gravity which is consistent with Einstein’s equivalence principle and generates a weak field approximation which extends Newtonian dynamics. Thus, the extended theory of gravity can infer that the light has a speed limit of photon escaping the mass inertia of a star.

Photon Gas Is the Medium of Electromagnetic Waves

The aim of this paper is to find the carrier or medium of electromagnetic waves that has been searched for many years. The thermal radiation is composed of the shot noise and the wave noise, so the Planck formula can be separated mathematically into two parts. Assume every photon has the same proper magnetic moment and an equal rest mass which has been estimated from the cosmic background temperature in space where the photon gas is at an open state of thermal equilibrium. The magnetic-electric dynamic equation is established that means magnetic curl caused electric change, and the electric-magnetic dynamic equation is established that means electric curl caused magnetic change. After the wave equation is caught, it is clear that the photon gas is the medium of electromagnetic waves in vacuum.

The Common Topological Origin of Waves in Quantum and Photon Physics as Well as in the Cosmic Redshift

It is shown that the well-known wave behaviors of material particles and photons, as well as the newly discovered wave-like structures in the cosmic redshift, are related phenomena that follow conclusively when senders and receivers of photons or material particles are topologically located in manifolds with a dimension difference of one. In this context, the inertial mass of the proton and the electron, their spin properties and the cause of time are derived from basic topological and physical laws. In addition, the quantum geometric basis of relativistic time dilation, the basis of the relativistic energy-momentum relationship and the relationship between energy and time are shown. Finally, it is shown that a curved cosmic space causes a distance-dependent reddening of light and the associated apparent escape velocity of distant cosmic objects, and that this also leads to a topologically conditioned wave structure of this redshift.

Hypotheses on Vacuum and Elementary Particles: The Friedmann-Planck Micro-Universe, Friedmann and Schwarzschild Photon Spheres

This article presents the hypothesis that the vacuum is endowed with a quantum structure;the vacuum particles would be Friedmann-Planck micro-universes. For this, the article introduces a quantization of a closed Friedmann universe, then a quantization of the photon spheres filling this universe. This approach gives a numerical value consistent with cosmological measurements for the current dark energy density of our Universe. Next, the article takes the content of a model published in Physics Essays in 2013 [1], assuming that elementary particles are Schwarzschild photon spheres;these could be derived from the Friedmann photon spheres composing the vacuum particles. It is further recalled that the model presents a unified structure of elementary particles and allows us to calculate the value of the elementary electric charge as well as the mass of the elementary particles.

Correlation in Gamma Ray Burst Time Delays between Pairs of Radio Photons

We present a pilot study of time delays Δt in four GRB Radio Afterglow emissions, i.e., delays in the arrival times of radio waves of different frequencies emanating from eight GRB Radio Afterglows. Unlike in most studies on this phenomenon, we do not assume that this time delay is due to the Photon being endowed with a non-zero mass, but that this may very well be due to the interstellar space being a cold rarefied cosmic plasma, which medium’s Electrons interact with the electric component of the Photon, thus generating tiny currents that lead to dispersion, hence, a frequency (v) dependent speed of Light where this speed scales off as v-1. The said interaction is such that, lower frequency Photons will propagate at lower speeds than higher frequency Photons thus leading to the observed time delays in the arrivals times of Photons of different frequencies. In reasonable accord with the proposed model, we find that for four of these GRB afterglows, there is a strong unsolicited correlation between the observed time delays and the frequency. If this model can be corroborated by a large enough data set, there is hope that this same model might lead to a better understanding of the observed time delays in GRBs.

Mass Increase with Strong and Gravitational Potentials, and Mass Defect with Electromagnetic Potential

The proposal is “mass increases due to strong and gravitational potentials, while it decreases due to Electromagnetic potential”. This proposal explains the big difference in mass between hadrons (protons, neutrons, & mesons) and their components (quarks), mass difference between nucleus and its individual components (protons and neutrons), massless of gamma photons, abnormal masses of mesons and bosons, and the excess in galaxy masses (dark matter). Also, this proposal shows the exact relation between mass and energy: Strong Potential=−3.04mc2| Electric Potential |=−5.57×10−3mc2Gravitational Potential=−1.22×10−7mc2where m represents the excess in mass due to strong potential, or gravitational potential and represents the decrease in mass due to electromagnetic potential. Released energy here equals potential energy and doesn’t equal decrease in mass using the formula E = mc2. Released energy is transferred to heat, photons, kinetic energy… Finally, proposal will try to describe the relation between photon energy and mass of its components using the general equation of kinetic energy: Photon Energy=1/2mc2m is the sum of the individual masses of its components, while the total mass of photon is zero.

Inertial and Gravitational Mass Described by Their Electromagnetic Processes

In the present paper, gravitational and inertial mass are described as one and the same electromagnetic mechanism in atoms and particles. Previous reports have described the dynamic electromagnetic processes of the atom, the photon and gravity. Results from these reports have been compiled into a theoretical model. The theoretical model describes the mechanism creating gravitational and inertial mass. The study also displays how the electromagnetic characteristics of gravitational and inertial mass and the mechanism are measured.

Experimental Proof of Mass in Photon

The present work deals with the mass of photon which creates a force at the contact point of reflection resulting in slight deviation of photon from its path after reflection. Only the mass of photon can cause deviation due to inertial force. If photon has no mass, it cannot deviate. It is also found that this deviation of photon depends on the angle of polarization plane of laser light with respect to reflecting mirror. Such variation in the angle of deviation by the plane of polarization proves that the mass of photon is neither in the centre of photon nor distributed uniformly but located off-centre (away from the centre of photon). This work proves that photon has mass and the most important part of this work is to discover that the mass of the photon is located off-centre (away from the centre of photon). This discovery explains Wave Particle Duality of electromagnetic radiations.

A Novel Model of the Atom

In this study all energy in the universe, here called energy quanta, originate from a singularity at the centre of the universe. These energy quanta have different frequencies and at each frequency the energy quanta can have positive or negative spin direction. There is a force of attraction between energy quanta which have exactly the same frequency but opposite spins. This is the dominating force in the universe and accounts for the strong nuclear force, the Coulomb force and the gravitational force. The universe contains one more basic entity;the oscillator quantum which absorbs and re-emits energy quanta at one specific frequency. The oscillator quantum can have positive or negative spin. Thus, there is a force of attraction between oscillator quanta with opposite spins and which amalgamates oscillator quanta into larger structures, i.e. particles (e.g. electron). These particles also have spin at a specific spin frequency and they have positive or negative spin. Thus they absorb and re-emit energy quanta at a frequency specific to the particle and where they can have positive or negative spin. This amalgamates particles into larger structures, e.g. quarks, neutron, proton and atomic nucleus. Using this model enables simple and stringent descriptions of elementary particle physics, electromagnetic theory, gravity, photon and inertial mass. The present model may be a step towards unification of elementary particle physics, general relativity, quantum physics and electromagnetic theory into one comprehensive theory.

Screening Breakdown for Finite-Range Gravitational Field and the Motion of Galaxies in the Local Group

The lack of Birkhoff theorem in finite-range gravitation reveals nonzero acceleration of the test body inside the massive spherical shell, as well as breakdown of screening inside the charged conductor gives rise to acceleration of the test charge. An application of this effect to the motion of galaxies in Local Group allows to constraint quintessence parameter in some massive gravitational theories.

As Regards the Speed in a Medium of the Electromagnetic Radiation Field

The velocity of the electromagnetic radiation in a perfect dielectric, containing no charges and no conduction currents, is explored and determined on making use of the Lorentz transformations. Besides the idealised blackbody radiation, whose vacuum propagation velocity is the universal constant c, being this value independent of the observer, there is another behaviour of electromagnetic radiation, we call inertial radiation, which is characterized by an electromagnetic inertial density , and therefore, it happens to be described by a time-like Poynting four-vector field which propagates with velocity . is found to be a relativistic invariant expressible in terms of the relativistic invariants of the electromagnetic field. It is shown that there is a rest frame, where the Poynting vector is equal to zero. Both phase and group velocities of the electromagnetic radiation are evaluated. The wave and eikonal equations for the dynamics of the radiation field are formulated.

The Electromagnetic Nature of Gravitation and Matter-Antimatter Antigravity. Surmise on Quantum Vacuum Gravitation and Cosmology

We show that the electromagnetic quantum vacuum derives directly from Maxwell’s theory and plays a primary role in quantum electrodynamics, particle physics, gravitation and cosmology. It corresponds to the electromagnetic field ground state at zero frequency, a zero-energy cosmic field permeating all of space and it is composed of real states, called kenons (κενο = vacuum). Photons are local oscillations of kenons guided by a non-local vector potential wave function with quantized amplitude. They propagate at the speed imposed by the vacuum electric permittivity ε0 and magnetic permeability μ0, which are intrinsic properties of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum. The electron-positron elementary charge derives naturally from the electromagnetic quantum vacuum and is related to the photon vector potential. We establish the masse-charge equivalence relation showing that the masses of all particles (leptons, mesons, baryons) and antiparticles are states of the elementary charges and their magnetic moments. The equivalence between Newton’s gravitational law and Coulomb’s electrostatic law results naturally. In addition, we show that the gravitational constant G is expressed explicitly through the electromagnetic quantum vacuum constants putting in evidence the electromagnetic nature of gravity. We draw that G is the same for matter and antimatter but gravitational forces should be repulsive between particles and antiparticles because their masses bear naturally opposite signs. The electromagnetic quantum vacuum appears to be the natural link between quantum electrodynamics, particle physics, gravitation and cosmology and constitutes a basic step towards a unified field theory. Dark Energy and Dark Matter might originate from the electromagnetic quantum vacuum fluctuations. The calculated electromagnetic vacuum energy density, related to the cosmological constant considered responsible for the cosmic acceleration, is in good agreement with the astrophysical observations. The cosmic acceleration may be due to both “quantum vacuum fluctuations” and “matter-antimatter gravitational repelling”. All the above results are established without stating any assumptions or postulates. Next, we advance two hypotheses with cosmological impact. The first is based on the possibility that gravitation is due to the electromagnetic quantum vacuum density of states fluctuations giving rise to a photon pressure at the characteristic collective oscillation frequencies of the charge densities composing the bodies (Electromagnetic Push Gravity). The second advances that energy, matter and antimatter in the universe emerge spontaneously from the quantum vacuum fluctuations as residues that remain stable in space and we present the main principles upon which a new cosmological model may be developed overcoming the well-known Big Bang issues.

Measurement of mass attenuation coefficients,effective atomic numbers,and electron densities for different parts of medicinal aromatic plants in low-energy region

The mass attenuation coefficients(l/q) for different parts(root, flower, stem, and leaf) of three medicinal aromatic plants(Teucrium chamaedrys L. subsp. sinuatum,Rheum ribes, and Chrysophthalmum montanum) were measured using an ^(241)Am photon source in a stable geometry and calculated using the Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport Code System-extended(MCNPX) code and the WinXCOM program. The experimental and theoretical MCNPX and WinXCOM values exhibited good agreement.The measured mass attenuation coefficient values were then used to compute the effective atomic number(Z_(eff))and electron density(N_E) of the samples. The results reveal that S1-S(stem of Teucrium chamaedrys L. subsp. sinuatum) has the highest values of l/q and Zeff.

Extraction of inclusive photon production at mid-rapidity in p+p and Au+Au collisions at√SNN=200GeV

We present a comprehensive study on the individual sources of an inclusive photon production during high-energy hadronic collisions.The cross section and invariant yields of inclusive photons are obtained as a function of pT at mid-rapidity(|y|<0.5)in p+p and Au+Au collisions at√SNN=200GeVrespectively.These results provide crucial inputs to separate measurements of open bottom and charm hadron yield suppression in heavyion collisions,which are used to test the mass hierarchy of the parton energy loss in the quark gluon plasma created during these collisions.The procedure developed in this study can also be applied to other measurements of electrons from an open heavy-flavor hadron decay,such as the collective flow in the RHIC beam energy scan program.