Introducing a 2nd Universal Space-Time Constant Can Explain the Observed Age of the Universe and Dark Energy

The purpose of this paper is to introduce new theoretical concepts as opposed to accepting the existence of dark entities, such as dark energy. This research sought to introduce a 2nd universal space-time constant, besides having a finite speed constant (speed of light in vacuum c). A finite universal age constant b is introduced. Namely, this paper shows that the changes in the Earth’s anomalistic year duration over time support the hypothesis of the age of the universe correlating with a maximum number of orbital revolutions constant. Neglecting the gravitational influence of other cosmological entities in the proximity of the Earth, the constant maximum number of revolutions is herewith determined solely by the Earth’s orbital revolutions around the Sun. The value of the universal age constant b is calculated to be around 13.8 billion orbital revolutions, derived out of an equation related to the changes in the Earth’s anomalistic year duration over time and the so-called Hubble tension. The above-mentioned calculated value b correlates well with the best fit to measured data of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) by the Planck spacecraft, the age of the observed universe is measured to be approximately 13.787 ± 0.020 billion years (2018 final data release). Developing a theory with this 2nd universal space-time constant b, being covariant with respect to the Lorentz transformations when time spans are large, gives results such as: A confirmation of the measured CMBR value of 13.787 ± 0.020 billion years. Correlating well with the observed expansion rate of the universe (dark energy). The universe’s expansion accelerating over the last four to five billion years.

The Essence of Gravity Is the Expansion Tendency of the Universe after the Big Bang

Why cannot Newton’s theory of gravitation be used to describe the motion of micro particles? This article summarizes and clarifies that Newton’s theory of gravitation is subjectively a statistical description for natural phenomena, while its essence is the expansion tendency of particles in the new universe formed after the orthogonal collision (the Big Bang) of objects in the old universe. The new particles formed by the Big Bang exhibit the accelerating expansion and local convergence in the spacetime of the new universe. The force of the accelerating expansion for the new particles comes from the shear stress produced by the orthogonal collision. There is only a one-way conversion from the mass in the old universe to the energy in the new universe without any exchange of information between them. Orthogonal collision forms maximum energy density and accelerates motion of new particles. The theory that orthogonal collision produces a new universe can be used to explain the phenomena of three scales. On the cosmic scale, it can explain the Big Bang, the early celestial formation, and their movements. On the macro scale, it can explain the early Earth’s surface mountain uplift and current atmospheric vortices. At the micro scale, it can explain aurora and other astronomical optical phenomena as well as the generation of new particles. The idea of orthogonal collision attempts to use shear stress and particle potential energy to find a theory of everything that can fully explain all aspects of the universe.

Dark Matter and Dark Energy from Lattice Model of Universe

The article considers a conceptual universe model as a periodic lattice (network) with nodes defined by the wave function in a background-independent Hamiltonian based on their relations and interactions. This model gives rise to energy bands, similar to those in semiconductor solid-state models. In this context, valence band holes are described as dark matter particles with a heavy effective mass. The conducting band, with a spontaneously symmetry-breaking energy profile, contains particles with several times lighter effective mass, which can represent luminous matter. Some possible analogies with solid-state physics, such as the comparison between dark and luminous matter, are discussed. Additionally, tiny dark energy, as intrinsic lattice Casimir energy, is calculated for a lattice with a large number of lattice nodes.

The Tension Cosmology, Largest Cosmic Structures and Explosions of Supernovae from SST

Here, using the Scale-Symmetric Theory (SST) we explain the cosmological tension and the origin of the largest cosmic structures. We show that a change in value of strong coupling constant for cold baryonic matter leads to the disagreement in the galaxy clustering amplitude, quantified by the parameter S8. Within the same model we described the Hubble tension. We described also the mechanism that transforms the gravitational collapse into an explosion—it concerns the dynamics of virtual fields that lead to dark energy. Our calculations concern the Type Ia supernovae and the core-collapse supernovae. We calculated the quantized masses of the progenitors of supernovae, emitted total energy during explosion, and we calculated how much of the released energy was transferred to neutrinos. Value of the speed of sound in the strongly interacting matter measured at the LHC confirms that presented here model is correct. Our calculations show that the Universe is cyclic.

Bound State Description of Particles from a Quantum Field Theory of Fermions and Bosons, Compatible with Relativity

Both, the dilemma to find a quantum field theory consistent with Einstein’s law of relativity and the problem to describe existing particles as bound states of matter has been solved by calculating bound state matrix elements from a dual fermion-boson Lagrangian. In this formalism, the fermion binding energies are compensated by boson energies, indicating that particles can be generated out of the vacuum. This yields quantitative solutions for various mesons ω (0.78 GeV) - Υ (9.46 GeV) and all leptons e, μ and τ, with uncertainties in the extracted properties of less than 1‰. For transparency, a Web-page with the address htpps://h2909473.stratoserver.net has been constructed, where all calculations can be run on line and also the underlying fortran source code can be inspected.

From the Hubble Constant to the Black Hole Model. Universe Expansion with Matter Creation and a New Perspective on Dark Energy Observations

Comparison of the Hubble parameter with cosmological quantities strongly supports the black hole model for the description of the Universe evolution. Such evolution requires matter creation and has implications for what is currently referred to as “dark energy” and the “cosmological constant”.

Mass of the Universe from Quarks: A Plausible Solution to the Cosmological Constant Problem

A framework to estimate the mass of the universe from quarks is presented, taking spacetime into account. This is a link currently missing in our understanding of physics/science. The focus on mass-energy balance is aimed at finding a solution to the Cosmological Constant (CC) problem by attempting to quantize space-time and linking the vacuum energy density at the beginning of the universe and the current energy density. The CC problem is the famous disagreement of approximately 120 orders of magnitude between the theoretical energy density at the Planck scale and the indirectly measured cosmological energy density. Same framework is also used to determine the mass of the proton and neutron from first principles. The only input is the up quark (u-quark) mass, or precisely, the 1st generation quarks. The method assumes that the u-quark is twice as massive as the down-quark (d-quark). The gap equation is the starting point, introduced in its simplest form. The main idea is to assume that all the particles and fields in the unit universe are divided into quarks and everything else. Everything else means all fields and forces present in the universe. It is assumed that everything else can be “quark-quantized”;that is, assume that they can be quantized into similar sizeable u-quarks and/or it’s associated interactions and relations. The result is surprisingly almost as measured and known values. The proton structure and mass composition are also analysed, showing that it likely has more than 3 quarks and more than 3 valence quarks. It is also possible to estimate the percentage of dark matter, dark energy, ordinary matter, and anti-matter. Finally, the cosmological constant problem or puzzle is resolved by connecting the vacuum energy density of Quantum Field Theory (5.1E+96 kg/m3) and the energy density of General Relativity (1.04E−26 kg/m3). Upon maturation, this framework can serve as a bridging platform between Quantum Field Theory and General Relativity. Other aspects of natures’ field theories can be successfully ported to the platform. It also increases the chances of solving some of the unanswered questions in physics.

Critical Success Factors Influencing the Implementation of Sustainable Energy System in Uganda: A Case of Inter-University Council of East Africa Energy Project at the Head Quarters in Kampala, Uganda

The widespread usage of clean and sustainable energy sources is leading to a significant transformation of the world’s energy systems. Over-reliance on only the national grid energy system has made institutions fail to sustain energy systems. The council is only connected to the national grid electricity supply system, with diesel generators as the only alternative, which is unhealthy and unsafe. Surprisingly, even with such alternatives, power shortages have persisted despite government efforts to provide a solution to the shortages by installing numerous off-grid systems. Due to such a situation, the council would construct a sustainable energy system as a remedy. Thus, the purpose of this study was to establish critical success factors influencing the implementation of a sustainable energy system at the Inter-University Council of East Africa (IUCEA) Head Quarters, Kampala-Uganda. A cross-sectional survey design was used;a sample size of 84 participants was selected. Questionnaire survey and interview methods were utilized. The study found that the most significant (p < 0.05) critical factors in the implementation of sustainable energy in institutions are;the use of innovative technologies and infrastructure, the use of efficient zero emissions for heating and cooling, integration of renewable energy use in the existing buildings, building and renovating in an energy-efficient way, integrating regional energy systems, improving energy efficiency in the buildings, enhanced zero emission power technologies, energy efficient equipment in place and stakeholder empowerment in energy management. This study concludes that institutions like;the Inter-University Council of East Africa (IUCEA) need to clearly state policies and actions of energy management. The roles and responsibilities of each member have to be clearly stated while capturing the activities involved in energy conservation, energy security and energy efficiency.

Total Energy Expenditure of 16 Chinese Young Men Measured by the Doubly Labeled Water Method

Objective Doubly labeled water （DLW） method is the gold standard for measuring total energy expenditure （TEE）. We used this method to measure TEE in Chinese young men. Methods Sixteen healthy young men age 23±1 recruited. TEE was measured by the DLW method, by indirect calorimetry. We also conducted 24-h estimate energy requirements of the subjects. years with body mass index 22.0±1.4 kg/m2 were and basal energy expenditure （BEE） was determined activity, energy balance and factorial approach to Results TEE of subjects by DLW method was 9.45±0.57 M J/day （2258±180 kcal/day）. The 24-h activity was 10.80±0.33 M J/day （2582±136 kcal/day）. The energy requirement, derived from energy balance observations, was 9.93±1.32 M J/day （2373±315 kcal/day）. The BEE of 6.65±0.28 M J/day （1589±67 kcal/day）, calculated by the adjusted Schofield equation, was significantly higher （P〈O.O01） than that measured by indirect calorimetry, 5.99-±0.66 M J/day （1433-±158 kcal/day）. The TEE derived from the factorial approach was 10.31-±0.43 M J/day （2463±104 kcal/day）. Conclusion The TEE of Chinese young men measured by the DLW method was about 10% lower than the current recommended nutrient intake （RNI）, suggesting that the RNI for Chinese men maybe overestimated. Further studies are warranted to determine the value of the estimated energy requirement.

RENEWAL OF BASIC LAWS AND PRINCIPLES FOR POLAR CONTINUUM THEORIES (Ⅷ)—PRINCIPLE OF TOTAL WORK AND ENERGY

Theoretical incompleteness of the existing conservation laws of energy for polar continuum mechanics is further clarified. For completeness, the principles of total work and energy and of total work and energy of incremental rate type are postulated. Via total variations of the former and the latter of them, the principles of virtual displacement and microrotation & stress and couple stress as well as virtual velocity and angular velocity & stress rate and couple stress rate are immediately obtained, respectively. From these principles all balance equations and boundary conditions for micropolar mechanics are naturally and simultaneously deduced. The essential differences between the nontraditional results obtained in this paper and the existing conservation laws of energy are expounded.

Emergence of Friedmann Equation of Cosmology of a Flat Universe from the Time-Energy Uncertainty Principle

Friedmann equation of cosmology is based on the field equations of general relativity. Its derivation is straight-forward once the Einstein’s field equations are given and the derivation is independent of quantum mechanics. In this paper, it is shown that the Friedmann equation pertinent to a homogeneous, isotropic and flat universe can also be obtained as a consequence of the energy balance in the expanding universe between the positive energy associated with vacuum and matter, and the negative gravitational energy. The results obtained here is a clear consequence of the fact that the surface area of the Hubble sphere is proportional to the total amount of information contained within it.

SUPER NONLINEAR TOTAL ENERGY OF A PARTICLE AND THE THEORY OF DE BROGLIE WAVE

By using Laurent series, the veloci ty (～c) is expanded and then the total energy expression of a particle moving w ith high velocity is obtained. The total energy contains two parts: the rest e ne rgy and the kinetic energy. Also in this paper the theory of the de Broglie wave from the relation of the energy_momentum is obtained in which the phase velocit y is still less than the velocity of light c .

The foundation of the theory of the universe dark energy and its nature

Surprisingly recent astronomical observations have provided strong evidence that our universe is not only expanding, but also is expanding at an accelerating rate. This paper pre- sents a basis of the theory of universe space- time dark energy, a solution of Einstein’s cosmological constant problem, physical interpretation of universe dark energy and Einstein’s cosmological constant Lambda and its value ( = 0.29447 × 10-52 m-2), values of universe dark energy density 1.2622 × 10-26 kg/m3 = 6.8023 GeV, universe critical density 1.8069 × 10-26 kg/m3 = 9.7378 GeV, universe matter density 0.54207 × 10-26 kg/m3 = 2.9213 GeV, and universe radiation density 2.7103 × 10-31 kg/m3 = 1.455 MeV. The interpretation in this paper is based on geometric modeling of space-time as a perfect four- dimensional continuum cosmic fluid and the momentum generated by the time. In this modeling time is considered as a mechanical variable along with other variables and treated on an equal footing. In such a modeling, time is considered to have a mechanical nature so that the momentum associated with it is equal to the negative of the universe total energy. Since the momentum associated with the time as a mechanical variable is equal to the negative system total energy, the coupling in the time and its momentum leads to maximum increase in the space-time field with 70.7% of the total energy. Moreover, a null paraboloid is obtained and interpreted as a function of the momentum generated by time. This paper presents also an interpretation of space-time tri-dipoles, gravity field waves, and gravity carriers (the gravitons). This model suggests that the space-time has a polarity and is composed of dipoles which are responsible for forming the orbits and storing the space-time energy-momentum. The tri-di- poles can be unified into a solo space-time dipole with an angle of 45 degrees. Such a result shows that the space-time is not void, on the contrary, it is full of conserved and dynamic energy-momentum structure. Furthermore, the gravity field waves is modeled and assumed to be carried by the gravitons which move in the speed of light. The equivalent mass of the graviton (rest mass) is found to be equal to 0.707 of the equivalent mass of the light photons. Such a result indicates that the lightest particle (up to the author’s knowledge) in the nature is the graviton and has an equivalent mass equals to 2.5119 x 10-52 kg. Based on the fluidic nature of dark energy, a fourth law of thermodynamics is proposed and a new physical interpretation of Kepler’s Laws are presented. Additionally, based on the fact that what we are observing is just the history of our universe, on the Big Bang Theory, Einstein’s General Relativity, Hubble Parameter, cosmic inflation theory and on NASA’s observation of supernova 1a, then a second-order (parabolic) parametric model is obtained in this proposed paper to describe the accelerated ex- pansion of the universe. This model shows that the universe is approaching the universe cosmic horizon line and will pass through a critical point that will influence significantly its fate. Considering the breaking symmetry model and the variational principle of mechanics, then the universe will witness an infinitesimally stationary state and a symmetry breaking. As result of that, our universe will experience in the near future, a very massive impulse force in the order 1083 N. Subsequently, the universe will collapse. Finally, simulation results are demonstrated to verify the analytical results.

Comment on “About the Energy of the Universe”

On the basis of Duan's general energy-momentum conservation law,1-3 Feng et al.4 have calculated the energy of the universe and obtained vanishing energy.We should point out that Duan's conservation law is wrong.

Dark Energy as a Vacuum Component of the Universe

The vacuum component of the Universe is investigated in both the quantum and the classical regimes of its evolution. The associated vacuum energy density was reduced by more than 78 orders of magnitude in 10-6 sec in the quantum regime and by nearly 45 orders of magnitude in 4 × 1017 sec in the classical regime. The vacuum energy was spent for the organization of new microstates during the expansion of the Universe. In the quantum regime, phase transitions were more effective in reducing the vacuum energy than in producing new microstates. Both of these phenomena have been recorded in the history of the Universe. Herein, the need for the evolution of the Universe’s vacuum component is discussed. Indeed, through this evolution, all 123 crisis orders of dark energy are reduced by conventional physical processes. A table of the vacuum energy’s evolution as the function of red shift and a short discussion about vacuum stability are presented.

A Heuristic Approach to the Far-Future State of a Universe Dominated by Phantom Energy

This work is based on a cosmological scenario of a universe dominated by phantom energy with equation of state parameter w﹤-1 and the analysis of its asymptotic behaviour in the far-future. The author discusses whether a Big Rip singularity could be reached in the future. Working in the context of general relativity, it is argued that the Big Rip singularity could be avoided due to the gravitational Schwinger pair-production, even if no other particle-creating contribution takes place. In this model, the universe is described in its far-future by a state of a constant but large Hubble rate and energy density, as well as of a constant but low horizon entropy. Similar conditions existed at the beginning of the universe. Therefore, according to this analysis, not only the Big Rip singularity could be avoided in the far-future but also the universe could asymptotically be led to a new inflationary phase, after which more and more universes could be created.

Space-Time as the Source of Energy That Accelerates the Universe

A cosmological model with both acceleration and deceleration is proposed, rewriting and reinterpreting Einstein＇s Field Equations, with a variable cosmological parameter A denoting energy due to space-time, which may be considered as ＂vacuum energy＂ at the ＂beginning＂ of the universe. The cosmological constant is replaced by a variable cosmological parameter, which is a measure of the energy of space-time that could be converted to energy of matter and radiation and vice versa.

A Quantum Space Model of Cosmic Evolution: Dark Energy and the Cyclic Universe

We present a Quantum Space Model (QSM) of cosmic evolution based on the theory that space consists of energy quanta from which our universe came about. We used the Friedmann equations to trace its history and predict its ultimate fate. Results provide further support to our recent proposal that the accelerating expansion of the universe is due to a scalar space field which has become known as Dark Energy. In our model, the universe started from high energy space quanta which were triggered by quantum fluctuations that caused the Big Bang. It then expanded and cooled undergoing phase transitions to radiation, fundamental particles, and matter. Matter agglomerated and grew into stars, galaxies, etc. and was eventually consolidated by gravity into Black Holes, which finally ended in a Big Crunch in a state of deep freeze inside the Black hole at 1.380 trillion years. Fluctuations, quantum tunneling, or some other mechanisms caused a new Bang to start another cycle in its life. Our results are in good agreement with the theoretical predictions of a cyclic universe by Steinhardt and his associates, and by Penrose. Space and energy are equivalent as embodied in the Planck energy equation. They give rise to the two principal long range forces in the universe: the gravitational force and the space force. The latter may be the fifth force in the universe. The two forces could provide the clockwork mechanism operating our cyclic universe. If the Law of Conservation of Energy is universal, then the cosmos is eternal.

Quantum Entanglement: Where Dark Energy and Negative Gravity plus Accelerated Expansion of the Universe Comes from

Dark energy is shown to be the absolute value of the negative kinetic energy of the halo-like quantum wave modeled mathematically by the empty set in a five dimensional Kaluza-Klein (K-K) spacetime. Ordinary or position energy of the particle on the other hand is the dual of dark energy and is contained in the dynamic of the quantum particle modeled by the zero set in the same five dimensional K-K spacetime. The sum of both dark energy of the wave and the ordinary energy of the particle is exactly equal to the energy given by the well known formula of Einstein E=mc2 which is set in a four dimensional spacetime. Various interpretations of the results are presented and discussed based on the three fundamental energy density equations developed. In particular where E is the energy, m is the mass and c is the speed of light, is Hardy’s quantum entanglement and gives results in complete agreement with the cosmological measurements of WMAP and Supernova. On the other hand gives an intuitive explanation of negative gravity and the observed increased rate of cosmic expansion. Adding E (ordinary) to E (dark) one finds which as we mentioned above is Einstein’s famous relativity formula. We conclude that similar to the fact that the quantum wave interpreted generally as probability wave which is devoid of ordinary energy decides upon the location of a quantum particle, it also exerts a negative gravity effect on the cosmic scale of our clopen, i.e. closed and open universe. Analysis and conclusions are framed in a reader friendly manner in Figures 1-14 with detailed commentary.

Gravity vs. Dark Energy, about the Expansion of the Universe

Dark energy is argued by the accelerating expansion of the Universe but has not been directly measured. In this article, some uncertainties are pointed out, first one being the determination of the Hubble constant. And the main parameters (magnitude, distance, redshift, velocity) are checked. Distinguishing the instantaneous velocity from the average velocity, it is then concluded from the same data that the expansion would not be accelerating, and that the Gravity would slightly slow down the motion of explosion. Moreover, at the end of the paper, it is proposed a neo-Newtonian approach to get the computed values in a closer agreement with the observed values;this Neo-Newtonian Mechanics is in coherence with the Quantum Mechanics.