Geospatial Evaluation for Ecological Watershed Management II: Changes in Land Use—Land Cover Influence on Ecosystems Services

Ecosystem services are a key to human survival and global sustainability. Consequently, there is the need to avoid unscrupulous or unplanned land use practices that can compromise these services in addition to the ongoing changes in the global climate whose potentially negative impact are yet to be fully comprehended thus far. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the Land use—land cover changes of some Eastern Shore sub-watersheds of Maryland from 1986-2006 and qualitatively assess the impact of the changes on some key ecosystem services. Landsat-TM data for Maryland Eastern Shore in the United States were analyzed in ENVI and ArcGIS environment and data interpreted qualitatively. The result showed that forest lands increased during the study period and thus enhanced carbon sequestration favorable for mitigating global warming in the area. Also, the extent of surface water cover increased slightly, possibly due to rising sea level and a thus a potential threat to biodiversity and barrier islands nearby. There was also a significant increase in urban lands due to population increase and thus increase in the extent of impervious layers that could lead to reduced surface runoff and increase the potential for surface water quality impairment;this could lead to a reduction in the capacity of surface water ecosystem to provide clean/recreational waters. The increase in the extent of surface water cover was at the expense of the wetlands that shrunk, thereby threatening the coastal ecosystem’s ability to provide services such as storm and wave protection, nutrient cycling, and the protection of wildlife habitat. There was also a decrease in the extent of Agricultural lands which could lead to loss of food and fiber during the study period. There is therefore an urgent need to formulate or intensify existing policies to regulate land use from an ecological health standpoint in order to ensure sustainability of the various ecosystems within the watersheds of the Lower Eastern Shore of Maryland in the US, and similar coastal locations elsewhere.

The Public Water Supply Protection Value of Forests: A Watershed-Scale Ecosystem Services Analysis Based upon Total Organic Carbon

We developed a cost-based methodology to assess the value of forested watersheds to improve water quality in public water supplies. The developed methodology is applicable to other source watersheds to determine ecosystem services for water quality. We assess the value of forest land for source water mitigation of total organic carbon (TOC) through the use of linked watershed and reservoir simulation models and cost-based valuation economics. Watershed modeling results indicated that expected urbanization will increase TOC loads to Converse Reservoir (Mobile, AL). Reservoir model results indicated that future median TOC concentrations increased by 1.1 mg·L-1 between 1992 and 2020 at the source water intake. Depending upon dynamic reservoir TOC concentrations, additional drinking water treatment with powdered activated carbon (PAC) often is necessary between May and October to comply with Safe Drinking Water Act regulations. The cost for additional treatment was calculated using minimum and maximum volume treated with simulated TOC concentrations at the source water intake. Daily simulated TOC concentrations for the base scenario using 1992 land cover (3% urban) were compared with simulated TOC concentrations following forest to urban land conversion predicted in the watershed by 2020 (22% urban). The daily cost for additional drinking water treatment with PAC was calculated if simulated TOC concentrations exceeded 2.7 mg·L-1. The mean increase in daily treatment costs between base and future scenarios ranged from $91 to $95 per km2 per day for forest land water purification ecosystem services.

Evaluation of the water conservation function in the Ili River Delta of Central Asia based on the InVEST model

The Ili River Delta(IRD)is an ecological security barrier for the Lake Balkhash and an important water conservation area in Central Asia.In this study,we selected the IRD as a typical research area,and simulated the water yield and water conservation from 1975 to 2020 using the water yield module of the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs(InVEST)model.We further analyzed the temporal and spatial variations in the water yield and water conservation in the IRD from 1975 to 2020,and investigated the main driving factors(precipitation,potential evapotranspiration,land use/land cover change,and inflow from the Ili River)of the water conservation variation based on the linear regression,piecewise linear regression,and Pearson's correlation coefficient analyses.The results indicated that from 1975 to 2020,the water yield and water conservation in the IRD showed a decreasing trend,and the spatial distribution pattern was"high in the east and low in the west";overall,the water conservation of all land use types decreased slightly.The water conservation volume of grassland was the most reduced,although the area of grassland increased owing to the increased inflow from the Ili River.At the same time,the increased inflow has led to the expansion of wetland areas,the improvement of vegetation growth,and the increase of regional evapotranspiration,thus resulting in an overall reduction in the water conservation.The water conservation depth and precipitation had similar spatial distribution patterns;the change in climate factors was the main reason for the decline in the water conservation function in the delta.The reservoir in the upper reaches of the IRD regulated runoff into the Lake Balkhash,promoted vegetation restoration,and had a positive effect on the water conservation;however,this positive effect cannot offset the negative effect of enhanced evapotranspiration.These results provide a reference for the rational allocation of water resources and ecosystem protection in the IRD.

Management Implications of Aquifer Fractures on Ecosystem and Habitat Suitability for Panthers in Southern Florida

Our case study analyzed the proximity of previously mapped fractures in the aquifer matrix to 93 Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) dens mapped from 2007-2016 in south Florida. Dens occurred in five counties (Collier = 77, Dade = 1, Hendry = 9, Lee = 5, and Monroe = 1) and three sub-basins of the Greater Everglades Basin (Big Cypress Swamp = 83, Caloosahatchee = 3, and Everglades = 7). Fractured aquifers occur worldwide, but are not the focus of habitat suitability studies, despite evidence that fractures influence plant species composition and density. Habitat alterations can occur many kilometers from the surface footprint of groundwater alterations in the regional Floridan aquifer system via preferential flow through fractures. Increased natural discharge from and recharge to the aquifer occur at fracture intersections. Greater induced recharge and habitat changes also may occur at fracture intersections. All dens were within 5 km of a previously mapped fracture;36% and 74% were within 1 km and 2 km, respectively, of those fractures;and 47%, 74%, and 90% of dens were within 2 km, 3.25 km and 5 km, respectively, from the nearest fracture intersection. Results suggest fractures influence the suitability and/or availability of habitat for panther dens, selection of den sites, and availability as well as abundance of high quality prey items essential for the nutritional demands of successfully rearing panther kittens in the wild. We recommend more detailed investigations of: a) vegetation characteristics near dens, b) groundwater alterations and cumulative impacts of those alterations associated with fractures in panther habitat (e.g., altered plant species composition and density), and c) influence of aquifer fractures in all habitats underlain by fractures.

Spatiotemporal characteristics and influencing factors of ecosystem services in Central Asia

Land use/land cover(LULC)change and climate change are two major factors affecting the provision of ecosystem services which are closely related to human well-being.However,a clear understanding of the relationships between these two factors and ecosystem services in Central Asia is still lacking.This study aimed to comprehensively assess ecosystem services in Central Asia and analyze how they are impacted by changes in LULC and climate.The spatiotemporal patterns of three ecosystem services during the period of 2000-2015,namely the net primary productivity(NPP),water yield,and soil retention,were quantified and mapped by the Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach(CASA)model,Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs(InVEST)model,and Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation(RUSLE).Scenarios were used to determine the relative importance and combined effect of LULC change and climate change on ecosystem services.Then,the relationships between climate factors(precipitation and temperature)and ecosystem services,as well as between LULC change and ecosystem services,were further discussed.The results showed that the high values of ecosystem services appeared in the southeast of Central Asia.Among the six biomes(alpine forest region(AFR),alpine meadow region(AMR),typical steppe region(TSR),desert steppe region(DSR),desert region(DR),and lake region(LR)),the values of ecosystem services followed the order of AFR>AMR>TSR>DSR>DR>LR.In addition,the values of ecosystem services fluctuated during the period of 2000-2015,with the most significant decreases observed in the southeast mountainous area and northwest of Central Asia.LULC change had a greater impact on the NPP,while climate change had a stronger influence on the water yield and soil retention.The combined LULC change and climate change exhibited a significant synergistic effect on ecosystem services in most of Central Asia.Moreover,ecosystem services were more strongly and positively correlated with precipitation than with temperature.The greening of desert areas and forest land expansion could improve ecosystem services,but unreasonable development of cropland and urbanization have had an adverse impact on ecosystem services.According to the results,ecological stability in Central Asia can be achieved through the natural vegetation protection,reasonable urbanization,and ecological agriculture development.

Impacts of Extreme Droughts on Ecosystem Water Use Efficiency Diverge between Forest and Grassland

Ecosystem-scale water use efficiency (WUE),as a quantification of the coupling between carbon and water cycle,determines whether vegetation could survive under severe drought stress.Nevertheless,how extreme droughts affect ecosystem-scale WUE and its difference among regions and biomes are still poorly understood.In this study,using data-oriented gridded products of gross primary productivity (GPP) and evapotranspiration (ET),we assessed the ecosystem WUE change during extreme drought years over China,and further compared drought impacts on WUE between forest and grassland ecosystems.We found a spatial heterogeneity of WUE change in response to extreme droughts across regions.Particularly,grassland WUE was substantially reduced concurrent with suppressed photosynthesis,while most of forest exhibited slightly decreased or even increased WUE under extreme droughts.In addition,we demonstrated that drought characteristics and environmental conditions modulated drought impacts on WUE.Temperature anomalies during droughts and leaf area were found to be the predominant factors driving WUE change for both forest and grassland.With increasing occurrence of compound dry and hot extremes,our results,therefore,would be an insightful supplement to the current understanding of the influence of extreme events on terrestrial ecosystems.

Investigation of environmental and land use impacts in forested permafrost headwaters of the Selenga-Baikal river system,Mongolia-Effects on discharge,water quality and macroinvertebrate diversity

Headwater streams play a major role for provision of ecosystem services,e.g.drinking water.We investigated a high-altitude headwater catchment of the Kharaa River(including 411st-order rivers)to understand the impact of land cover(especially forest cover),environment and human usage on runoff,chemical water quality and macroinvertebrate fauna in a river basin under discontinuous permafrost conditions in an arid,sparsely populated region of Mongolia.To verify our hypotheses that different landuses and environmental impacts in permafrost headwaters influence water quality,we investigated 105 sampling sites,37 of them at intermittent stream sections without water flow.Discharge was positively impacted by land cover types steppe,grassland and forest and negatively by shrubland,forest burnt by wild fires(indicating a reduction of permafrost)and slope.Water quality was affected by altitude,longitude and latitude,shrub growth and water temperature.Shannon diversity of macroinvertebrates was driven by water temperature,iron content of the water,flow velocity,and subbasin size(adjusted R^(2)=0.54).Sample plots clustered in three groups that differed in water chemistry,macroinvertebrate diversity,species composition and bio-indicators.Our study confirms that steppes and grasslands have a higher contribution to runoff than forests,forest cover has a positive impact on water quality,and diversity of macroinvertebrates is higher in sites with less nutrients and pollutants.The excellent ecological status of the upper reaches of the Kharaa is severely threatened by forest fires and human-induced climate change and urgently needs to be conserved.

Differential responses of carbon and water vapor fluxes to climate among evergreen needleleaf forests in the USA

Introduction:Understanding the differences in carbon and water vapor fluxes of spatially distributed evergreen needleleaf forests(ENFs)is crucial for accurately estimating regional or global carbon and water budgets and when predicting the responses of ENFs to current and future climate.Methods:We compared the fluxes of ten AmeriFlux ENF sites to investigate cross-site variability in net ecosystem exchange of carbon(NEE),gross primary production(GPP),and evapotranspiration(ET).We used wavelet cross-correlation analysis to examine responses of NEE and ET to common climatic drivers over multiple timescales and also determined optimum values of air temperature(T_(a))and vapor pressure deficit(VPD)for NEE and ET.Results:We found larger differences in the NEE spectra than in the ET spectra across sites,demonstrating that spatial(site-to-site)variability was larger for NEE than for ET.The NEE and ET were decoupled differently across ENF sites because the wavelet cospectra between ET and climate variables were similar at all sites,while the wavelet cospectra between NEE and climate variables were higher(i.e.,closer coupling between NEE and climatic drivers)in semi-arid and Mediterranean sites than in other sites.Ecosystem water use efficiency(EWUE)based on annual GPP/ET ranged from 1.3±0.18 to 4.08±0.62 g C mm^(−1) ET,while EWUE based on annual net ecosystem production(NEP)/ET ranged from 0.06±0.04 to 1.02±0.16 g C mm^(−1) ET)among ENFs.Responses of NEE and ET to T_(a) varied across climatic zones.In particular,for ENF sites in semi-arid and Mediterranean climates,the maximum NEE and ET occurred at lower ranges of T_(a) than in sites with warm and humid summers.The optimum T_(a) and VPD values were higher for ET than for NEE,and ET was less sensitive to high values of T_(a) and VPD.Conclusions:Large spatial variability in carbon and water vapor fluxes among ENFs and large variations in responses of NEE and ET to major climate variables among climatic zones necessitate sub-plant functional type parameterization based on climatic zones to better represent climate sensitivity of ENFs and to reduce uncertainty in model predictions.

Quantifying water stress effect on daily light use efficiency in Mediterranean ecosystems using satellite data

The capacity of six water stress factors(ε′(i))to track daily light use efficiency(ε)of water-limited ecosystems was evaluated.These factors are computed with remote sensing operational products and a limited amount of ground data:ε′1 uses ground precipitation and air temperature,and satellite incoming global solar radiation;ε′(2) uses ground air temperature,and satellite actual evapotranspiration and incoming global solar radiation;ε′_(3) uses satellite actual and potential evapotranspiration;ε′_(4) uses satellite soil moisture;ε′_(5) uses satellite-derived photochemical reflectance index;and ε′_(6) uses ground vapor pressure deficit.These factors were implemented in a production efficiency model based on Monteith’s approach in order to assess their performance for modeling gross primary production(GPP).Estimated GPP was compared to reference GPP from eddy covariance(EC)measurements(GPP EC)in three sites placed in the Iberian Peninsula(two open shrublands and one savanna).ε′_(i) were correlated to ε,which was calculated by dividing GPP EC by ground measured photosynthetically active radiation(PAR)and satellite-derived fraction of absorbed PAR.Best results were achieved by ε′(1),ε′(2),ε′(3) and ε′(4) explaining around 40% and 50% of ε variance in open shurblands and savanna,respectively.In terms of GPP,R^(2)≈0.70 were obtained in these cases.

水权交易对生态环境影响研究进展

在经济社会发展受到区域水资源总量限制的情况下,水权交易作为解决当今世界严峻水资源危机的重要手段之一,已在国内外进行了广泛的实践。水权交易改变了水资源的时空配置,对水生态和水环境产生有利或不利的影响,然而关于水权交易对生态环境影响的研究尚未有系统的梳理。总结了水权交易对水资源系统影响研究的主要发展历程,着重论述了水权交易对水资源系统影响的4个重点研究方面:可交易生态环境水权的研究、水权交易对水量、水生态、水环境影响的研究。未来应当加强水权交易对生态环境影响的定量研究,进一步提升水权交易对水质、地下水、退水、陆生生态环境影响的研究,明确不同交易类型的不同影响,还应考虑不确定性因素的影响。

关于水资源规划中水资源量与生态用水量的探讨

由于人们对水资源量计算过程了解不够 ,常导致水资源量配置计算出现概念上错误 ,特别是现代水资源规划考虑生态用水的需要 ,在对待水资源量与生态用水量的关系上存在错误认识。本文从水资源量的一般概念分析出发 ,从确切的水资源量计算与分析上说明水资源量的组成、转化关系以及生态用水的概念及计算方法 ,并强调介绍水资源配置中如何考虑生态用水问题。

叶尔羌河平原绿洲水资源可利用量的探讨

结合叶尔羌河绿洲水资源可利用的特点，对下游生态耗水作了初步估算，并由此给出了不同水平年叶尔羌河平原绿洲水资源可利用量值。本文还提出了一个引用水的规则。

基于GIS的陕北黄土高原土地生态系统水土保持价值评价

【目的】土壤侵蚀是导致人类赖以生存且日趋紧缺的土地资源退化和损失的主要原因,这种损失正在全球悄然进行。定量计算区域土地生态系统水土保持的价值量,为区域土地的持续利用与生态环境和社会经济协调发展提供科学决策依据。【方法】本文根据陕北黄土高原的特点,采用无植被覆盖的潜在土壤侵蚀量来估算各生态系统土壤保持量,然后利用估算的土壤保持量,采用市场价值法、机会成本法和影子工程法从保护土壤肥力、减少表土损失和减轻泥沙淤积3个方面来评价水土保持的经济效益。【结果】而从整个时间段上来看,2000年比1978年的土壤保持量增长94.18%,接近一倍。1978～2000年期间陕北黄土高原水土保持价值是逐渐增加的,1978～1990年期间比1990～2000年期间增加的要快。1978年的陕北黄土高原的水土保持价值为18.503亿元;1990年比1978年陕北黄土高原水土保持价值增加了近8亿元;而2000年比1990年增加了2.414亿元。【结论】近20多年的时间里,1978～1990年时间段增长幅度比1990～2000年的增长幅度要大,这与植被覆盖度有着密切的关系。针对陕北黄土高原所进行的一系列水土保持治理工作,已经取得了巨大的成绩。从空间分布上来看,通过对研究区三类不同地貌类型区进行水土保持价值评价,其结果为,南部低山丘陵区>北部风沙过渡区>中部黄土丘陵区。

关中-天水经济区农田生态系统涵养水源价值量时空变化

【目的】科学、准确地量化农田生态系统的涵养水源服务,有助于其更好地发挥调节水源、稳定水源供应的作用,以缓解水源短缺的危机.【方法】在3S技术支持下,采用土壤蓄水法估算了关中-天水经济区农田生态系统水源涵养量,并采用影子工程法、成本估算法等计算了其涵养水源的价值量.【结果和结论】关中-天水经济区农田生态系统涵养水源量及其价值在1980—2010年的30年间呈先减少后增加的总体变化趋势,其中,1980—2005年农田生态系统涵养水源总量从32.219亿m3·年-1减少至19.691亿m3·年-1,涵养水源总价值从21.587亿元·年-1减少至13.193亿元·年-1,年均减少1.56%;2005—2010年生态系统总涵养水源数量从19.691亿m3·年-1增加到31.638亿m3·年-1,总涵养水源价值从13.193亿元·年-1增加到32.219亿元·年-1,年均增长为7.42%.由于退耕还林还草政策的正向引导,在耕地面积日益减少的情况下,农田生态系统的涵养水源量及涵养水源价值量依然呈增长趋势,并具有一定的时空变化:在时间上表现为先减少后增加;在空间上表现为东南平原高,西北山地、丘陵低的变化趋势.

辽宁省辽河流域水质水量联合配置模型及结果分析

根据科学发展观和生态文明建设的总体要求,基于"自然—人工"二元水循环理论,研发了面向地表水功能区水质目标的水质水量联合配置模型及系统软件,通过不同情景、不同组合方案的水资源"三次平衡"长系列逐月调节计算,提出辽宁省辽河流域未来20年时间跨度水资源配置全方位多视角系列成果,为辽宁省辽河流域水资源开发利用和节约保护、治理等提供了重要依据。

邢台市水生态系统服务评估

为评估邢台市水生态系统服务,采用实物评估法、市场价值理论法及成果参照法对邢台市水生态系统服务9类指标进行了评估。结果表明,邢台市2011年水生态系统服务价值为218.31×108元,其中调节服务价值量为162.26×108元,占总价值的74.3%。可见应全面认识水生态系统的价值,不只关注直接的供给服务价值,也应考虑间接的调节服务价值及文化服务价值。应加强对水生态环境的保护和修复,促进人与自然的和谐发展。

欧盟水框架指令的借鉴意义

回顾了我国水污染防治面临的严重挑战,比较了中国与欧盟在水资源管理领域的战略与政策。指出了欧盟水框架指令值得我国借鉴的若干原则,诸如水资源水环境一体化管理的主体立法;水量、水质和水域生态系统的一体化管理政策;建立涉水政府部门的协调机制以及流域管理中的公众参与等。

基于层次分析的安徽省水安全综合评价

区域水安全是保障区域可持续发展的基础。在考虑水资源特性和安徽省具体情况的基础上,构建了安徽省水安全综合评价指标体系,并采用层次分析法对安徽省2005年-2010年水安全状况进行了评价。结果表明,2005年-2010年安徽省水资源安全状况分别处于"不安全"和"基本安全"之间,水安全状况不容乐观。这一结论与集对分析法得出的结果有较好的一致性,表明基于层次分析的水安全评价方法可行、结论可靠。最后,从改善水安全状况的角度,在促进节约、提高水资源利用效率、改善水质等方面提出建议。

Seasonal and inter-annual variations in carbon fluxes and evapotranspiration over cotton field under drip irrigation with plastic mulch in an arid region of Northwest China

Xinjiang is the largest semi-arid and arid region in China, and drip irrigation under plastic mulch is widely used in this water-limited area. Quantifying carbon and water fluxes as well as investigating their environ- mental drivers over cotton fields is critical for understanding regional carbon and water budgets in Xinjiang, the largest cotton production basin of China. In this study, an eddy covariance （EC） technique was used to measure the carbon and water fluxes of cotton field under drip irrigation with plastic mulch in the growing seasons of 2009, 2010, 2012 and 2013 at Wulanwusu Agrometeorological Experiment Station, a representative oasis cropland in northern Xinjiang. The diurnal patterns of gross primary production （GPP）, net ecosystem exchange （NEE） and evapotran-spiration （ET） showed obviously sinusoidal variations from June to September, while the diurnal ecosystem respiration （Res） was stable between daytime and nighttime. The daytime hourly GPP and ET displayed asymptotic rela-tionships with net solar radiation （Rnet）, while showed concave patterns with raising vapor pressure deficit （VPD） and air temperature （Ta）. The increases in hourly GPP and ET towards the maximum occurred over half ranges of VPD and Ta. The seasonal variations of GPP, NEE and ET were close to the cotton phenology, which almost reached the peak value in July. The cumulative GPP averaged 816.2±55.0 g C/m^2 in the growing season （from April to October）, and more than half of GPP was partitioned into NEE （mean value of -478.6±41.4 g C/m^2）. The mean seasonal ET was 501.3±13.9 mm, and the mean water use efficiency （WUE） was 1.0＋0.1 （mg C/g H2O）/d. The agro-ecosystem behaved as a carbon sink from squaring to harvest period, while it acted as a carbon source before the squaring time as well as after the harvest time.

Industrial development and land use/cover change and their effects on local environment:a case study of Changshu in eastern coastal China

The interactions among industrial development,land use/cover change (LUCC), and environmentaleffects in Changshu in the eastern coastal China wereanalyzed using high-resolution Landsat TM data in 1990,1995, 2000, and 2006, socio-economic data and waterenvironmental quality monitoring data from researchinstitutes and governmental departments. Three phases ofindustrial development in Changshu were examined (i.e.,the three periods of 1990 to 1995, 1995 to 2000, and 2000to 2006). Besides industrial development and rapidurbanization, land use/cover in Changshu had changeddrastically from 1990 to 2006. This change was characterizedby major replacements of farmland by urban and ruralsettlements, artificial ponds, forested and constructed land.Industrialization, urbanization, agricultural structureadjustment, and rural housing construction were themajor socio-economic driving forces of LUCC inChangshu. In addition, the annual value of ecosystemservices in Changshu decreased slightly during 1990-2000, but increased significantly during 2000-2006.Nevertheless, the local environmental quality in Changshu,especially in rural areas, has not yet been improvedsignificantly. Thus, this paper suggests an increasedattention to fully realize the role of land supply inadjustment of environment-friendly industrial structureand urban-rural spatial restructuring, and translating theland management and environmental protection policiesinto an optimized industrial distribution and land-use pattern.