Origin of Mountain Passes across Continental Divide Segments Surrounding the Southwest Montana Big Hole and Beaverhead River Drainage Basins, USA

The evolution of southwest Montana’s Big Hole and Beaverhead River drainage basins is determined from topographic map evidence related to mountain passes crossing what are today high altitude drainage divides including North America’s east-west Continental Divide. Map evidence, such as orientations of valleys leading away from mountain passes (and saddles) and barbed tributaries found along the downstream drainage routes, is used to reconstruct flow directions of streams and rivers that once crossed the present-day high mountain divides. Large south-oriented anastomosing complexes of diverging and converging channels are interpreted to have eroded what are today closely spaced passes and saddles now notched into high mountain ridges. Water in those south-oriented channels is interpreted to have flowed across emerging mountains and subsiding basins. Headward erosion of deeper southeast-oriented valleys, assisted by crustal warping, concentrated south-oriented water in fewer and deeper valleys as the water flowed from southwest Montana into what are today Idaho and the Snake River drainage basin. Headward erosion of the Big Hole River valley between the emerging Anaconda and Pioneer Mountains, also assisted by crustal warping, reversed all Big Hole Basin drainage so as to create the north-, east-, and south-oriented Big Hole River drainage route. A final and even more major reversal of flow in the present-day north-oriented Montana Missouri River valley, with the assistance of additional crustal warping, next ended all remaining flow to Idaho and the Snake River drainage basin and reversed and captured all drainage in the present-day north-oriented Big Hole, Beaverhead, and Red Rock River drainage basins. The observed map evidence indicates that prior to the final flow reversal events, large volumes of south-oriented water flowed across southwest Montana’s Big Hole and Beaverhead River drainage basins.

Morphometric Analysis of Drainage Basins in the Western Arabian Peninsula Using Multivariate Statistics

The uplift of the Arabian Shield and the opening of the Red Sea led to the development of steep drainage systems in the Western Arabian Peninsula. Although the Peninsula has been studied from a geological perspective, in relation to oil production, plate tectonics and eolian systems such as sand dunes, the steep mountainous drainage basins have received much less attention. This paper aims to assess the characteristics and development of 36 drainage basins in the Western Arabian Peninsula, using a digital elevation model (DEM), principal component analysis (PCA), and hierarchical cluster analysis (CA). Three major principal components (PC1 to PC3) are found to explain 73% of total variance. CA divided the basins into two or four groups. The division by CA strongly reflects PC1, showing that the two analyses give comparable results. PC1 strongly reflects basin dimensions and drainage texture, and their positive correlations indicate the significant effect of basin relief and slope on mass wasting and limited stream incision in small basins under an arid climate. PC2 mainly reflects the effect of bedrock geology, suggesting that volcanic rocks tend to produce more elongated and less eroded immature basins than crystalline rocks do. PC3 mainly reflects the basin relief and slope and the length of each stream segment, which may also reflect the effect of mass wasting on stream development.

Syn-rift to post-rift tectonic transition and drainage reorganization in continental rifting basins:Detrital zircon analysis from the Songliao Basin,NE China

Tectonic transition from a syn-rift stage to subsequent post-rift stage is an important mechanism in the evolution of extensional basins.The sedimentary infill records the crustal response to this process.We have obtained new detrital zircon U-Pb and Lu-Hf signatures from the Lower Cretaceous stratigraphic successions encompassing the commonly accepted syn-to post-rift transition boundary,the T4 unconformity,in the Songliao Basin,NE China.These constrain the Songliao Basin’s evolution from its center to distal margins,providing insights into the sediment provenance and dispersal pattern over the tectonic transition.Analysis of zircons from the syn-rift(the Shahezi and Yingcheng formations)and immediate post-rift(the Lower and Middle Denglouku Formation)stages reveals Phanerozoic age populations with positiveƐHf(t)values,which were derived from the proximal juvenile mantle-derived melt origin bedrocks of the Songliao Block.In contrast,the overlying samples from the Upper Denglouku Formation deposited in the subsequent post-rift stage contain exotic and ancient zircon populations with ages of 2.5 Ga&1.8 Ga and complex hafnium signatures,characteristic of a mixed origin.These are interpreted to be transported from distant cratonic terranes via larger drainage networks.It is obvious that the sediment dispersal pattern switched from being a local and hydrologically closed“intraregional”pattern to a“transcontinental”pattern during the transition.The time lag between the development of the T4 unconformity and the drainage reorganization also ensures a distinguishable3 Myr(106103 Ma,Late Albian)transition period of regional extent.During this transition stage,syn-rift faulting was replaced by postrift thermal subsidence,exhibiting a uniform sag configuration.Our new findings are important for understanding other continental rift basins during syn-to post-rift transition,which often demonstrates a complex interaction between the linkage and integration of sub-basins,and the reorganization of fluvial drainages and catchment systems.

Problems for water resources development in typical small karst drainage basins and countermeasures

In karst area water deficit is one of the main factors constraining sustainable economic development. In 1979 the comprehensive karstic observational field station was set up in Houzhai drainage basin located,\ in Puding county of Guizhou Province, which can represent most of the small karst drainage basins on the dividing line of the Guizhou Plateau. Geomorphology, water resources and water chemistry were investigated and observed. Based on comparisons of water supply with water demand and analysis of the main problems in water exploitation and utilization. it is found out that the water deficiency was not directly caused by the scarcity of natural water resources. The true reason is the insufficient capacity of water supply caused by the dismatch of the water and soil water resources which can be dealt with by building more irrigation works. Some solutions such as to build scientific basis for water exploitation and utilization and sustainable economic development in karst drainage basins on dividing line of the Guizhou Plateau.

Hydrological Modeling of Large Drainage Basins Using a GIS-based Hybrid Atmospheric and Terrestrial Water Balance (HATWAB) Model

A Hydrological model is proposed to study the spatial and temporal variability of the water budget components of large drainage basin systems from atmospheric and terrestrial water balances. In order to understand the water balances that include, surface runoff, actual evapotranspiration and soil moisture, a GIS-based simple water balance model which is referred as Hydrological Model from Hybrid Atmospheric and Terrestrial Water Balances with acronym HATWAB is presented. The spatio-temporal climatology database was created from a network of climate stations from CLIMWAT data base to reconstruct the monthly primary inputs to HATWAB model, rainfall and potential evapotranspiration. The modeling principles and HATWAB model are demonstrated using the Limpopo and Congo basins in Africa. The model was used to simulate water balance components by taking rainfall-runoff processes in the basin including soil-texture controlled moisture in the terrestrial system, and the vertical integrated moisture convergence that accounts for the net water vapor flux from the basins in order to close the hydrologic water budget.

The effects of drainage basin geomorphometry on minimum low flow discharge: the study of small watershed in Kelang River Valley in Peninsular Malaysia

This study investigate the relationships between geomorphometric properties and the minimum low flow discharge of undisturbed drainage basins in the Taman Bukit Cahaya Seri Alam Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. The drainage basins selected were third-order basins so as to facilitate a common base for sampling and performing an unbiased statistical analyses. Three levels of relationships were observed in the study. Significant relationships existed between the geomorphometric properties as shown by the correlation network analysis; secondly, individual geomorphometric properties were observed to influence minimum flow discharge; and finally, the multiple regression model set up showed that minimum flow discharge(Q min) was dependent of basin area(AU), stream length(LS), maximum relief(Hmax), average relief(HAV) and stream frequency(SF). These findings further enforced other studies of this nature that drainage basins were dynamic and functional entities whose operations were governed by complex interrelationships occurring within the basins. Changes to any of the geomorphometric properties would influence their role as basin regulators thus influencing a change in basin response. In the case of the basin's minimum low flow, a change in any of the properties considered in the regression model influenced the “time to peak' of flow. A shorter time period would mean higher discharge, which is generally considered the prerequisite to flooding. This research also conclude that the role of geomorphometric properties to control the water supply within the stream through out the year even though during the drought and less precipitations months. Drainage basins are sensitive entities and any deteriorations involve will generate reciprocals and response to the water supply as well as the habitat within the areas.

Research on runoff variations based on wavelet analysis and wavelet neural network model： A case study of the Heihe River drainage basin （1944-2005）

The Heihe River drainage basin is one of the endangered ecological regions of China. The shortage of water resources is the bottleneck, which constrains the sustainable development of the region. Many scholars in China have done researches concerning this problem. Based on previous researches, this paper analyzed characteristics, tendencies, and causes of annual runoff variations in the Yingluo Gorge （1944-2005） and the Zhengyi Gorge （1954-2005）, which are the boundaries of the upper reaches, the middle reaches, and the lower reaches of the Heihe River drainage basin, by wavelet analysis, wavelet neural network model, and GIS spatial analysis. The results show that： （1） annual runoff variations of the Yingluo Gorge have principal periods of 7 years and 25 years, and its increasing rate is 1.04 m^3/s.10y; （2） annual runoff variations of the Zhengyi Gorge have principal periods of 6 years and 27 years, and its decreasing rate is 2.25 m^3/s.10y; （3） prediction results show that： during 2006-2015, annual runoff variations of the Yingluo and Zhengyi gorges have ascending tendencies, and the increasing rates are respectively 2.04 m^3/s.10y and 1.61 m^3/s.10y; （4） the increase of annual runoff in the Yingluo Gorge has causal relationship with increased temperature and precipitation in the upper reaches, and the decrease of annual runoff in the Zhengyi Gorge in the past decades was mainly caused by the increased human consumption of water resources in the middle researches. The study results will provide scientific basis for making rational use and allocation schemes of water resources in the Heihe River drainage basin.

DRY/WET CLIMATE CHANGE SINCE 960 A.D.IN TAIHU DRAINAGE BASIN OF CHINA

ABSTRACT: The present study reconstructs an annual dry/wet grade series from 960 A. D. to 1992 A. D. in the Tai-hu drainage basin of eastern coast, China by collecting historical climatic records, to examine the climate periodicity and climate jumps. Power Spectrum analysis reveals that the dry/wet climate in the study area was a superposed phenomenon with the major period of quasi-100-year, and several other notable periods. These periods were supposed to be closely linked with the celestial activity. Climate jumps are detected using moving t-test. The two abrupt changes around 1247 - 1263 A. D. and 1618 - 1635 A. D. are proved as regional events. The 14th to 15th century appeared as the wettest period during the last 1000 years in the Taihu drainage basin. These are interpreted as the consequence of east Asia climate change.

A SYSTEMATIC STUDY ON LAND AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE TARIM RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN,XINJIANG PROVINCE,CHINA

A Systematic Study on Land (SSL), aiming at the investigation of the land complex, isone of the important parts of integrated physical geography. With systematic theory as guid-ance, the dissertaton carries out the comprehensive and systematic study of a series ofsubsystems like land classification, land structure analysis, comprehensive physicalregionalization, land evaluation, reasonable planning of land utilization as well as popula-

Study on Quantitative Model of Karst Drainage Basin Water-Holding Based on Principal Component Analysis: A Case Study of Guizhou, China

In Karst drainage basins, there are the ground water and underground water exchanging frequently, and the shortage of water resources due to having the special double aquifer mediums and unique surface and subsurface river systematic structure. This paper is to select 20 research sampling areas coming fromGuizhouProvince, and according to the spectral characteristics of the catchment water-holding mediums and vegetations, and using the remote sensing technique, extract the watershed vegetation index. According to the principle of principal component analysis, using the software of Spss and Matlab is to analyze the impacts of watershed vegetation type on the catchment water-holding ability, and establish the principal component analysis function. Studies have shown that: 1) the watershed vegetation coverage rate plays an important role in Karst basin water-holding ability;2) the catchment water-holding ability is the comprehensive reflection and manifestation of the Catchment Water-storing Capacity (CWC);3) it is much better effects and higher accuracy to monitor/forecast the catchment water-holding volume by using the vegetation indices.

Development characteristics of the third-order sequence of Upper Devonian–Lower Carboniferous shore-mixed shelf in Tarim Basin, NW China

Based on the study of stratigraphic sedimentary facies of the prototype sedimentary basin formed in the Late Devonian to Permian Period in the Tarim Basin, the prototype sedimentary basin are divided into five order sequences according to the theory of sequence stratigraphy. It is considered that the Upper Devonian–Lower Carboniferous shore-mixing shelf in the lower part of the prototype sedimentary basin is a typical third-order sequence and a sequence development model is established. The third-order sequence is actually a transgression systems tract and highstand systems tract cycle assemblage, and the type I sequence(no lowstand systems tract) is a typical developmental mode of the third order sequence, and the identification mark is the existence of huge mudstone and limestone wedges from sea to land. The fifth-order parasequence is the basic sequence, which is a single cycle sequence. The thin layer limestone isochronous sediments, which are easy to be identified in the mixed shelf areas, are the isochronous sediments of the largest or secondary marine-flooding surface. The mixed shelf area belongs to the equilibrium sedimentary profile of internal and external sediments, and there is no condensed section. The inclined deposition phenomenon of extraneous source sediments in the sea area weakens or disappears in the mixed shelf area. The paleogeomorphology at the bottom of the third-order sequence is a terrace-slope break zone. This paleogeomorphological feature is not only the main reason for the sedimentary diachronism of Donghe sandstone, but also the main reason for the formation of the transgression-highstand fourth-order cyclic sequences of the Donghe sandstone section and its upper gravel-bearing sandstone section.

Drainage Basin Characteristics of Dhund River Basin, Eastern Rajasthan India, Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques

Morphometric analysis is mathematical evaluation and measurement of the earth’s shape, surface and its landform’s dimension. Morphometric analysis of Dhund river basin in Jaipur district of Rajasthan India has been carried out to evaluate various morphometric parameters following the linear, areal and relief aspects. The drainage basin, which covers a total area of about 1828 km2 lies in eastern part of the district with maximum and minimum elevation of 603 m and 214 m respectively. Morphotectonic parameters like Hypsometric Integral, Sinuosity index and Asymmetry Factor have also been computed to identify the tectonic characteristics of the drainage basin. Primary and secondary data such as SOI topographic map, Cartosat-1 DEM and other relevant data were utilized. ArcGIS software (Arc Map 10.2) was used for geo-referencing of topographic maps, delineation of watershed and preparation of DEM, slope and drainage network. The basin is 6th order drainage basin having dendritic pattern of drainage network. A relatively lower mean value of Bifurcation ratio suggests that the drainage basin is formed by uniformed materials. Drainage basin area has little elongated shape and is less prone to floods. Basin has different erosional stages and levels of tectonic activity, Moderate Meandering and unstable setting.

Analyzing Anomalous Topographic Map Drainage System and Landform Evidence as a Glacial History Paradigm Problem: A Literature Review

While not usually stated, detailed topographic maps show well-mapped anomalous drainage system and other erosional landform evidence the accepted North American Cenozoic geologic and glacial history paradigm (accepted paradigm) does not permit geomorphologists to satisfactorily explain. A new and fundamentally different paradigm able to explain the drainage system and other erosional landform evidence has recently emerged, but requires what the accepted paradigm considers to be the preglacial (and probably mid-Cenozoic) Bell River drainage system to have formed on a melting continental ice sheet’s floor. The new paradigm’s melting ice sheet had previously eroded bedrock underneath it and caused crustal warping that raised continental regions and mountain ranges so as to create and occupy a deep “hole” while massive and prolonged meltwater floods flowed across rising continental regions and mountain ranges to the south. The new paradigm leads to a completely different middle Cenozoic geologic and glacial history than the accepted paradigm describes and the two paradigms are analyzed according to good science expectations such as using evidence anyone can see, applying common sense logic during each research step, producing consistent results, and simplicity of paradigm generated explanations. The new paradigm uses topographic map evidence anyone can see, appears to use common sense logic during each research step, and produces remarkably consistent results leading to a simpler Cenozoic northern Missouri River drainage basin region geologic and glacial history than what the accepted paradigm describes. Further work is needed to test the new paradigm’s ability to explain drainage system and erosional landform evidence in other geographic regions such as in the Ohio River drainage basin.

A New Treatment of Depression for Drainage Network Extraction Based on DEM

Depressions in landscapes function as buffers for water and sediment. A landscape with depressions has less runoff,less erosion and more sedimentation than that without depressions. Sinks in digital elevation models (DEMs) can be considered the real features that represent depressions in actual landscapes or spurious features that result from errors in DEM creation. In many hydrological and erosion models,all sinks are considered as spurious features and,as a result,these models do not deal with the sinks that represent real depressions. Consequently,the surface runoff and erosion are overestimated due to removing the depressions. Aiming at this problem,this paper presents a new method,which deal with the sinks that represent real depressions. The drainage network is extracted without changing the original DEM. The method includes four steps:detecting pits,detecting depressions,merging depressions,and extracting drainage network. Because the elevations of grid cells are not changed,the method can also avoid producing new flat areas,which are always produced by the conventional filling methods. The proposed method was applied to the Xihanshui River basin,the upper reach of the Jialingjiang River basin,China,to automatically extract the drainage network based on DEM. The extracted drainage network agrees well with the reality and can be used for further hydrologic analysis and erosion estimation.

How a New Cenozoic Geology and Glacial History Paradigm Explains Arkansas-Red River Drainage Divide Area Topographic Map Evidence in and near Pontotoc County, Oklahoma, USA

A new Cenozoic geology and glacial history paradigm (new paradigm), fundamentally different from the accepted Cenozoic geology and glacial history paradigm (accepted paradigm), describes a thick North American continental icesheet (located where continental icesheets are usually reported to have been) which by deep erosion and uplift of surrounding regions created and occupied a deep “hole” (the accepted paradigm does not see this thick ice sheet or the deep “hole”). Unusual erosional landform features in the southeast Oklahoma Pontotoc County region including the asymmetric Canadian-Red River drainage divide, a large escarpment-surrounded basin in which most south-oriented Clear Boggy Creek headwaters begin, and a large escarpment-surrounded upland on which the south-oriented Blue River begins, are used to test the new paradigm’s ability to use large and prolonged south-oriented melt water floods to explain previously unexplained or poorly explained detailed topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence. Numerous low points (referred to as divide crossings) indicate large and prolonged south-oriented melt water floods did flow across what is now the Canadian-Red River drainage divide (an interpretation also consistent with Clear Boggy Creek escarpment-surrounded basin and Blue River escarpment-surrounded upland shapes). The new paradigm described massive and prolonged melt water floods also account for previously unrecognized deep regional erosion (which is determinable from detailed topographic map evidence). East-oriented Canadian River valley headward erosion (from the Arkansas River valley) diverted the long-lived south-oriented meltwater floods to the Arkansas River valley and to what ultimately became the deep “hole’s” only southern exit. Previous southeast Oklahoma drainage history interpretations (made from the accepted paradigm perspective in which Rocky Mountain glacier melt water flowed to east-oriented rivers) do not provide adequate water volumes or flow directions to explain the detailed topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence, which the new paradigm’s massive and prolonged south-oriented melt water floods do explain.

Analysis of Morphometric Parameters and Radioactive Characteristics Using Remote Sensing Data and GIS Techniques in the Wadi Wizr Basin Area, Central Eastern Desert, Egypt

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate how modern technologies such as geographic information systems (GIS) and digital elevation models can help in the creation of a geographic database for the Wadi Wizr basin in Egypt’s Central Eastern Desert, in addition to examining and analysing the radioactive properties of various rocks. This was accomplished with the help of a digital elevation model (DEM) with a 30 metre accuracy and GIS software in 10.8 Arc Map. The RS-230 was also used to measure uranium and thorium concentrations. GIS softwares and digital elevation models have been shown to be more effective than the traditional method. This was demonstrated by the flexible and quick working method, the accuracy of the parameters used, and the results of the morphometric analysis of the basin river network. In addition to, the main drainage pattern from subtype to tree type, where the branching ratio was (1.59). This basin could also cause flooding. Similar studies, according to the results of this study, should make greater use of geographic information system technology and modern data sources. Wadi Wizr also has a radioactive anomaly, with uranium equivalent concentrations reaching 70 ppm in some fault parts.

Land Use Land Cover Dynamics of Upper Benue River Basin, Nigeria

This study examined land use land cover (LULC) dynamics in Upper Benue River Basin, Nigeria. The study makes use of primary and secondary data. Landsat Imageries for the years 1981, 2001 and 2021 were used in the study. Supervised approach with maximum likelihood classifier was adopted for the classification and generation of LULC maps. Markov Cellular Automata model was used to predict the status of LULC of the catchment for year 2070. The findings of the study reveal remarkable changes in the land use land cover of the Upper Benue River Basin. The land cover has witnessed downward trend in the percentage area covered by vegetation and bare surface resulting in 15.4% and 2.6% losses respectively. The result of the findings reveals that the built-up area and rock outcrop has shown significant gains of 15.2% and 2.9% of the study area respectively. Water body has been stable with 0% change, though, it witnessed a marginal decline in 2001. The land use land cover change observed in the Upper Benue River Basin was as a result of anthropogenic factors characterized by deforestation, expansion of agricultural lands, overgrazing among others. Based on the findings, the study recommended controlled grazing activity, deforestation and indiscriminate fuelwood exploitation and improved agronomic practices in the basin.

考虑水力连通的羌塘内流区洼地单元提取与分类

羌塘内流区是青藏高原面积最大的内流区,气候变化正在加剧其湖泊水系结构与水量的演变,开展内流区流域调查并科学估算其水资源的变化具有重要意义。本文提出一种新型内流区流域划分方法,该方法通过引入高程-面积联合阈值,以解决由气候变化与数字高程模型分辨率等因素引起的洼地单元提取难题。基于已监测的羌塘内流区流域重组与湖泊水位的变动幅度,确定了高程-面积联合阈值分别为10 m和50 km^(2),并对洼地单元进行划分,共识别出163个具有合理集水面积、永久性分水岭的封闭内流区洼地单元。引入多个相关数据集及已有算法评估本方法,结果表明:该方法适用于大尺度内流区洼地单元提取,提取精度优于现有算法及数据产品;依据洼地单元间水力连通特征,将全区163个洼地单元划分为5种主要类型,其中以“上下游互通型”(Ⅱ型)、“高山型”(Ⅳ型)洼地单元为主,“凹陷型”(Ⅴ型)洼地单元则多与其他类型复合存在,受气候条件的影响更加显著。

长江三峡贯通过程的动态古地貌重建

长江是亚洲第一大河,其形成和演化是新生代以来中国东西部构造—气候—地貌综合演变的结果。长江三峡的贯通是现代长江形成的标志性事件,但受限于传统沉积学、地球化学等单一方法的制约,对“长江三峡何时贯通”这一关键科学问题一直存在争议。综合考虑了构造运动、古气候及海平面变化等影响河流发展的关键因素,并将这些因素输入Badlands古地貌模拟软件,动态重建了长江“第一弯”以东地区晚白垩世(80 Ma)以来的长江流域地貌及水系演化过程;并利用四川盆地和江汉盆地的地震剖面资料验证了模拟结果的可靠性。模拟结果表明,青藏东部及上扬子西南缘晚始新世—渐新世的阶段性隆升迫使四川盆地原有南流水系下切受阻,沉积物在盆内堆积形成冲积河道并促使四川盆地地貌由“东北高西南低”反转为“西南高东北低”;新生代早期,江汉盆地长期受控于中国东部的裂陷环境,持续处于较低基准面。四川盆地的水系反转和江汉盆地的持续低基准面,最终导致位于二者之间的长江三峡在晚渐新世发生贯通。由此,本研究提出一种上扬子地区水系反转并被下游捕获的三峡贯通机制。