Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Welding Pool Surface by Binocular Vision

Current research of binocular vision systems mainly need to resolve the camera’s intrinsic parameters before the reconstruction of three-dimensional(3D)objects.The classical Zhang’calibration is hardly to calculate all errors caused by perspective distortion and lens distortion.Also,the image-matching algorithm of the binocular vision system still needs to be improved to accelerate the reconstruction speed of welding pool surfaces.In this paper,a preset coordinate system was utilized for camera calibration instead of Zhang’calibration.The binocular vision system was modified to capture images of welding pool surfaces by suppressing the strong arc interference during gas metal arc welding.Combining and improving the algorithms of speeded up robust features,binary robust invariant scalable keypoints,and KAZE,the feature information of points(i.e.,RGB values,pixel coordinates)was extracted as the feature vector of the welding pool surface.Based on the characteristics of the welding images,a mismatch-elimination algorithm was developed to increase the accuracy of image-matching algorithms.The world coordinates of matching feature points were calculated to reconstruct the 3D shape of the welding pool surface.The effectiveness and accuracy of the reconstruction of welding pool surfaces were verified by experimental results.This research proposes the development of binocular vision algorithms that can reconstruct the surface of welding pools accurately to realize intelligent welding control systems in the future.

Specular reflection based sensing surface deformation of gas tungsten arc weld pool

A sensing system is developed to measure the weld pool boundary and pool suoface deformation in gas tungsten arc welding. LaserStrobe technique is used to eliminate the strong arc light inteoference, and specular reflection from the pool suoface is sensed to describe the relation between the deformed stripes and pool surface depression. Clear images of both the pool boundary and the deformed stripes edges are obtained during gas tungsten arc welding process, which lays foundation for realtime monitoring the pool suoface depression and weld penetration.

RECONSTRUCTION OF WELD POOL SURFACE BASED ON SHAPE FROM SHADING

A valid image-processing algorithm of weld pool surface reconstruction according to an input image of weld pool based on shape from shading （SFS） in computer vision is presented. The weld pool surface information is related to the backside weld width, which is crucial to the quality of weld joint. The image of weld pool is recorded with an optical sensing method. Firstly, the reflectance map model, which specifies the imaging process, is estimated. Then, the algorithm of weld pool surface reconstruction based on SFS is implemented by iteration scheme and speeded by hierarchical structure. The results indicate the accuracy and effectiveness of the approach.

Effect of arc force on shape of the welding pool

Based on the three-dimensional model of TIG weld pool established,the effect of the arc force on liquid surface was investigated.The simulation was carried out with finite elements software Surface Evolver.The influence of the arc force on the weld pool shape was also studied.According to the results,the variation of the weld shape and the parameters with different arc force strength was obtained.Compared with the back weld pool,the top weld pool was influenced more strongly by the arc force.These results provide an effective basis for further study of the TIG weld pool.

Predicting the occurrence tendency-of burn-through for fully-penetrated GTA weld pool

The forces acting on a gas tungsten arc （GTA） weld pool are analyzed. A model of static force condition for fullypenetrated weld pool is developed, and the criterion is set up to judge and evaluate the occurrence tendency of burn-through defect. Transient variations of the forces affecting the surfaces deformation and collapsing of weld pool are computed, and the percentages of their influencing roles are obtained. For specific material and workpiece thickness, the threshold values below which the burn-through phenomenon does not occur are determined, and compared with the experimental results.

Oscillation Modes of Weld Pool in Stationary GTA Welding Using Structure Laser Method

Researchers have recently attempted to monitor pool oscillations using the three-dimensional laser vision method.However,the deficiency of simulation software will result in significant capital expenditure.Both simulations and experiments are performed in this study,and the Bessel equation is used to analyze the oscillation mode of a weld pool.The laser dot matrix images of(0,1),(1,1),(2,1),and(0,2)oscillation modes at different times are obtained via structured laser optical measurement simulation.The oscillation mode of a stationary gas tungsten arc weld pool is analyzed based on laser dot matrix images obtained from a structure laser experiment.Results show that the simulated laser dot matrix images are consistent with the experiment results.The oscillation mode of the weld pool can be recognized based on the laser dot matrix image.This study not only provides conditions for assessing the penetrating state of a weld pool,but also enable a further understanding of the oscillation mode of a weld pool and the development of more effective observation methods and measurement tools to effectively control and improve welding quality.

表面张力对激光焊接熔池及匙孔的影响

基于FLUENT19.0软件,建立了激光焊接热-流耦合模型,对比分析了不同表面张力温度系数(为负值)对熔池流场的影响.结果表明,随着表面张力温度系数的减小,熔池后方顺时针漩涡的流动趋势逐渐减弱,甚至消失,而且焊接飞溅的数量增多.纵截面熔池长度逐渐增加,纵截面熔池流体最大流动速度逐渐增大,熔池横截面的面积逐渐减小.当表面张力温度系数为-2.5×10^(-4)N/(m·K)时,熔池长度平均值为3.28 mm、熔池流体最大流动速度的平均值为2.89 m/s、熔池横截面面积的平均值为4.52 mm^(2);当表面张力温度系数为-3.5×10^(-4)N/(m·K)时,熔池长度平均值为3.73 mm、熔池流体最大流动速度的平均值为3.53 m/s、熔池横截面面积的平均值为4.03 mm^(2);当表面张力温度系数为-4.9×10^(-4)N/(m·K)时,熔池长度平均值为4.14 mm、熔池流体最大流动速度的平均值为4.09 m/s、熔池横截面面积的平均值为3.28 mm^(2).

奥氏体不锈钢薄板激光焊表面张力驱动熔池形成的数值模拟分析

为探究奥氏体不锈钢薄板激光焊接过程中表面张力对熔池形状、熔池流速、熔池静压的影响,以期优化焊接工艺并提高焊接质量。基于数值模拟分析方法,建立了移动旋转高斯曲面体热源模型,通过改变Marangoni对流系数来模拟不同表面张力条件,分析其对熔池形成过程、熔池形状、流速及熔池内静压力的影响。模拟结果表明,表面张力是影响熔池形态和内部静压力的关键因素,表面张力指向熔池内部,驱动熔池向中心汇聚,从而促进熔池的形成;表面张力的大小与熔池峰值温度、熔深、深宽比呈负相关,与峰值流速、熔宽、熔池内部静压力呈正相关;铜衬底的加入显著增大了过冷度,加速了熔池的冷却,有助于避开奥氏体不锈钢的敏化温度区间。

改进YOLOv3的轻量级铸件焊缝表面缺陷检测

针对机械制造行业中铸件焊缝表面缺陷数据集少,被检测物体处于复杂环境下目标检测困难和识别准确率低等问题,提出了一种改进的YOLOv3算法。使用了有效的数据增强技术,提高了模型的鲁棒性,使其更加适用于真实环境;引入轻量级网络GhostNet替换原始主干网络,降低模型参数量,减少训练时间;在主干网络最后一层输出端加入空间金字塔池化结构,提高模型的感受野和增强模型的抗干扰能力;在FPN(feature pyramid network)中引入1×1卷积和通道注意力机制,防止维度损失和提高对重要特征的关注度,增强对小目标的特征提取;在训练过程中引入Focal Loss,提高模型对正样本的预测准确率。实验结果表明,与原YOLOv3相比,改进模型在铸件焊缝缺陷数据集上mAP提升1.55%,小目标气孔AP提升4%,增加小目标识别精度。

Transport phenomena and keyhole evolution process in laser welding of stainless steel

Knowledge of transport phenomena and keyhole evolution is important for controlling laser welding process. However, it is still not well understood by far due to the complex phenomena occurring in a wide temperature range. A transient 3D model including heat transfer, fluid flow and tracking of free surface is built in this study. The transport phenomena are investigated by calculating the temperature and velocity fields. The 3D dynamic keyhole evolution process is revealed through tracking free surface using volume-of-fluid method. The results show that the keyhole deepening speed decreases with laser welding process before the quasi-steady state is reached. The plasma can greatly affect the keyhole depth through absorbing a great amount of laser energy and thus lowering the recoil pressure. Moreover, the relationship between keyhole depth and weld penetration is also discussed. This paper can help to better understand the dynamics in molten pool and then improve laser welding process.

Prediction of weld penetration extent in GTAW

The governing equations of surface-deformation in fully-penetrated GTAW weld pool are derived. The solution scheme of the Lagrange multiplier, which makes the top surface-deformation equation be coupled with that for the bottomsurface of a single weld pool, is given out. Through numerical analysis of weld pool surface-deformation in GTA W, it is found that there is clear correlation between the penetration extent and the Lagrange multiplier, in addition to the relationship between the penetration extent and the maximum depression and hump as well as the depressed volume of the top surface of weld pool. It lays good foundation for top-side sensing based weld penetration control.

TIG焊熔池表面流动行为的研究

针对钨极惰性气体保护(Tungsten inert gas,TIG)焊熔池表面流动行为,在确定TIG焊熔池表面可采用粒子示踪的方法来进行其表面流动行为示踪的基础上,在以激光为试验背光光源,通过激光在TIG焊熔池表面镜面反射后,使得熔池及示踪粒子清晰成像于成像屏上。在此基础上,开展对304不锈钢和Q235普通碳钢的熔池表面流动行为的试验研究,对所获得这两种材料的TIG焊熔池试验数据进行处理与对比分析,探究熔池表面流动规律。研究结果表明:在TIG焊过程中,其焊接熔池存在两种运动模式,在304不锈钢焊接过程中熔池表面的液态金属由边缘向熔池中心流动;在Q235碳钢焊接过程中熔池表面的液态金属不定向、不规则地由熔池中心向熔池边缘流动,并测量304不锈钢TIG焊过程中熔池表面的液态金属流动速率为12 mm/s左右,Q235碳钢的熔池表面的流动速率为15 mm/s左右。

活性剂对GH4169薄板电子束焊接焊缝成形的影响

选用镍基高温合金GH4169进行试验,分析了不同种类活性剂对焊缝成形的影响规律,发现添加不同的氧化物对焊缝表面成形、熔深均有影响,而添加氟化物却影响不大.在此基础上,进行配比和优化,得到了能改善焊缝成形,提高表面质量的电子束焊活性焊剂.分析活性剂改善电子束焊接焊缝成形的原因,认为添加活性剂改变了熔池内部的表面张力梯度,从而影响了熔池的流动方式,形成了窄而深、表面成形较好的焊缝.结果表明,活性剂电子束焊接能改善焊缝表面成形,并可进一步消除咬边等表面缺陷,这对薄板的电子束焊接技术很有帮助.

氧含量对TIG焊瞬态熔池行为影响的数值分析

建立定点高斯热源作用下TIG熔池的三维瞬态数学模型,考虑焊接熔池内各项散热、焊件内部及表面传热、相变潜热、材料热物理性能参数随温度变化等问题,运用FLUENT软件及其UDF的二次开发功能,模拟不同氧含量对熔池温度场及速度场的影响.结果表明:表面张力温度系数发生转变时的临界温度对熔池温度场和速度场有着决定性影响,该临界温度随氧含量的增加而增加,并且随着氧含量增加逐渐向熔池中心靠近.随着临界温度线的转移,表面张力发生改变,熔池内的Marangoni对流也因此改变,进而使得熔池形貌从低氧含量时浅而宽的形状变成为高氧含量时的深且窄的形状.

基于Fluent熔池内部受力的数值分析

根据TIG焊熔池的实际情况,建立了定点热源作用下TIG熔池的二维轴对称数学模型。利用FLUENT软件及其UDF进行二次开发,同时考虑了相变潜热、材料热物理性参数随温度变化等问题,对熔池中的流场及温度场进行了数值模拟,分析了熔池内部所受到的浮力、Marangoni力、电磁力和电弧力等对其流场及温度场的影响规律,特别是针对Marangoni力和电磁力对熔池流动的影响情况进行了深入分析。结果表明,焊接电流和表面张力温度系数对熔池内部流动有着至关重要的影响,决定了TIG熔池的截面形貌。

不锈钢/碳钢TIG焊熔池表面流动行为

为研究异种钢在钨极惰性气体保护焊过程中的熔池表面流动行为,以粒子示踪法为基础,通过激光熔池表面反射的方法,对304不锈钢/Q235碳钢、316L不锈钢/Q235碳钢焊接过程中熔池表面液态金属的流动行为进行了研究,分析了熔池表面示踪粒子的运动趋势,并以此为依据计算了熔池表面液态金属的流动速度.结果表明,在不锈钢/碳钢的TIG焊过程中,熔池表面的液态金属存在从不锈钢侧流向碳钢侧的流动行为.其中,示踪粒子在304不锈钢/Q235碳钢的焊接熔池表面平均流动速度约为25.3 mm/s,在316L不锈钢/Q235碳钢的焊接熔池表面平均流动速度约为21.6 mm/s.

熔池表面三维检测与测量技术现状及发展趋势

熔池表面三维检测与测量意义深远,但是因实现困难而研究工作很少。详细阐述了结构光三维视觉法、阴影恢复形状法以及双目立体视觉法等主要的熔池表面三维检测与测量方法,对其基本原理及其优缺点进行了深入分析。预测了熔池表面三维检测与测量技术的发展趋势,并指出传感器是制约其发展的关键技术。

TIG焊接熔透熔池形状和表面变形的数值模拟

利用建立的三维TIG焊接熔池瞬时行为数值分析模型,对移动热源作用下不锈钢薄板全熔透时熔池动态行为进行了数值分析。结果表明,同时采用电弧热流和电弧压力的双椭圆分布模式,相对于高斯分布模式,计算出的熔池形状和表面变形与试验结果吻合得更好。给出运动电弧作用下熔池表面变形的动态演变,分析了与固定电弧焊接时的异同,为运动电弧作用下TIG焊接的数值模拟与智能控制提供了理论依据和试验数据。

TIG焊熔池表面张力的测定及表面活性剂的影响

利用熔池振荡及熔池谐振信号的检测，以熔池自身固有振荡频率与熔池尺寸的内在关系测定熔池金属表面 张力，研究了薄板ＳＵＳ３０４不锈钢ＴＩＧ焊不同熔地尺寸的表面张力变化以及活性剂对熔池表面张力的影响。试验研 究方法为焊接熔池表面张力测定中的最初应用。

钨极氩弧焊熔池表面高度测量中变形条纹图的获取

提出一种基于条纹反射和傅立叶变换的测量GTAW熔池表面高度的新方法.利用激光器将光栅条纹投影在GTAW熔池表面,反射光轴上设置双透镜系统以转移熔池物面,利用空间滤波的方法阻挡弧光成分,在输出面放置白屏接收反射的熔池变形激光条纹,用CCD对屏上变形条纹实时成像.分析了焊枪位置、熔池的反射性能、弧光辐射等对变形条纹图获取的影响,找出合适的投影角度、拍摄系统参数以达到最好的拍摄效果.结果表明,所获得的熔池区变形激光条纹图像清晰且满足图像处理要求,并初步计算出熔池前部的表面形貌.