Research Progress on the Association Between Gut Microbiota and Respiratory System Diseases

This paper aims to review the association between gut microbiota and respiratory system diseases, and explore their potential mechanisms and clinical significance. Gut microbiota, as an important microbial ecosystem in the human body, has profound effects on host health. Recent studies have shown that the imbalance of gut microbiota is closely related to the occurrence and development of respiratory system diseases, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and pneumonia. We comprehensively analyzed the current research progress and found that gut microbiota may affect respiratory system diseases through various pathways, including immune regulation, inflammatory responses, and airway mucus secretion. Additionally, environmental factors, lifestyle, and dietary habits are also closely related to gut microbiota and respiratory system health. Understanding the relationship between gut microbiota and respiratory system diseases not only helps to reveal the mechanisms of disease occurrence but also provides a theoretical basis for the development of new treatment strategies. Future research should focus on exploring the types and functions of gut microbiota, conducting clinical trials based on this, investigating the effects of gut microbiota modulation on the treatment and prevention of respiratory system diseases, and providing new directions for personalized medicine.

Crohn’s disease as the intestinal manifestation of pan-lymphatic dysfunction:An exploratory proposal based on basic and clinical data

Crohn’s disease(CD)is caused by immune,environmental,and genetic factors.It can involve the entire gastrointestinal tract,and although its prevalence is rapidly increasing its etiology remains unclear.Emerging biological and small-molecule drugs have advanced the treatment of CD;however,a considerable proportion of patients are non-responsive to all known drugs.To achieve a breakthrough in this field,innovations that could guide the further development of effective therapies are of utmost urgency.In this review,we first propose the innovative concept of pan-lymphatic dysfunction for the general distribution of lymphatic dysfunction in various diseases,and suggest that CD is the intestinal manifestation of pan-lymphatic dysfunction based on basic and clinical preliminary data.The supporting evidence is fully summarized,including the existence of lymphatic system dysfunction,recognition of the inside-out model,disorders of immune cells,changes in cell plasticity,partial overlap of the underlying mechanisms,and common gut-derived fatty and bile acid metabolism.Another benefit of this novel concept is that it proposes adopting the zebrafish model for studying intestinal diseases,especially CD,as this model is good at presenting and mimicking lymphatic dysfunction.More importantly,the ensuing focus on improving lymphatic function may lead to novel and promising therapeutic strategies for CD.

Microglia lactylation in relation to central nervous system diseases

The development of neurodegenerative diseases is closely related to the disruption of central nervous system homeostasis.Microglia,as innate immune cells,play important roles in the maintenance of central nervous system homeostasis,injury response,and neurodegenerative diseases.Lactate has been considered a metabolic waste product,but recent studies are revealing ever more of the physiological functions of lactate.Lactylation is an important pathway in lactate function and is involved in glycolysis-related functions,macrophage polarization,neuromodulation,and angiogenesis and has also been implicated in the development of various diseases.This review provides an overview of the lactate metabolic and homeostatic regulatory processes involved in microglia lactylation,histone versus non-histone lactylation,and therapeutic approaches targeting lactate.Finally,we summarize the current research on microglia lactylation in central nervous system diseases.A deeper understanding of the metabolic regulatory mechanisms of microglia lactylation will provide more options for the treatment of central nervous system diseases.

Critical analysis of the effects of proton pump inhibitors on inflammatory bowel disease:An updated review

This letter critically evaluates the effects of proton pump inhibitors(PPIs)on inflammatory bowel disease,particularly focusing on Crohn's disease(CD)and ulcerative colitis(UC),as discussed in Liang et al’s recent review.While the review provides significant insights,it relies heavily on cross-sectional and observational studies,which limits the ability to draw causal inferences.The heterogeneous study populations and inconsistent definitions of long-term PPI use further complicate the findings.This letter also highlights the need for rigorous control of confounding factors and considers the potential publication bias in the existing literature.The implications of these issues are discussed in the context of both CD and UC,and future research directions are proposed to address these shortcomings.

Investigating Müller glia reprogramming in mice: a retrospective of the last decade, and a look to the future

Müller glia,as prominent glial cells within the retina,plays a significant role in maintaining retinal homeostasis in both healthy and diseased states.In lower vertebrates like zebrafish,these cells assume responsibility for spontaneous retinal regeneration,wherein endogenous Müller glia undergo proliferation,transform into Müller glia-derived progenitor cells,and subsequently regenerate the entire retina with restored functionality.Conversely,Müller glia in the mouse and human retina exhibit limited neural reprogramming.Müller glia reprogramming is thus a promising strategy for treating neurodegenerative ocular disorders.Müller glia reprogramming in mice has been accomplished with remarkable success,through various technologies.Advancements in molecular,genetic,epigenetic,morphological,and physiological evaluations have made it easier to document and investigate the Müller glia programming process in mice.Nevertheless,there remain issues that hinder improving reprogramming efficiency and maturity.Thus,understanding the reprogramming mechanism is crucial toward exploring factors that will improve Müller glia reprogramming efficiency,and for developing novel Müller glia reprogramming strategies.This review describes recent progress in relatively successful Müller glia reprogramming strategies.It also provides a basis for developing new Müller glia reprogramming strategies in mice,including epigenetic remodeling,metabolic modulation,immune regulation,chemical small-molecules regulation,extracellular matrix remodeling,and cell-cell fusion,to achieve Müller glia reprogramming in mice.

Predictors of prognosis in Alzheimer’s disease: The role of cognitive dysfunction, immune abnormalities, and advanced neuroimaging

Alzheimer’s disease(AD)is a grave illness that results in cognitive and social issues.A recent study examined the association between neuroimaging results,cognitive dysfunction,atypical cellular immune function,and poor prognostic factors in AD patients who demonstrated poor prognosis.Poor prognosis was associated with abnormal cellular immune function,extrapyramidal symptoms,altered consciousness,abnormal electroencephalogram,modified Rankin scale,increased neutrophil lymphocyte ratio,and severe pneumonia.The impaired cellular immune function characterized by a reduction in the blood T lym-phocytes’proportion predicted poor prognosis as an independent risk factor in AD.Early initiation and maintenance of AD medications is associated with better outcomes.

Advances in microRNA and inflammatory bowel disease and their related mechanisms

Inflammatory bowel disease(IBD)is a complex and multifactorial disease characterized by chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract,mainly manifested by the accumulation of immune cells and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the intestinal mucosa.It is a kind of immune digestive system disease with high incidence in humans and can be divided into ulcerative colitis(UC)and Crohn's disease(CD).The pathogenesis of IBD is complex,and numerous studies have shown that genetic,environmental,microbial,immune,autophagy and other factors may be involved in the pathogenesis of IBD.MicroRNAs(miRNAs)play an important role in the pathophysiology of IBD.Studies have confirmed that miRNA play an important role in the targeted regulation of intestinal barrier homeostasis,immune response,and intestinal epithelial autophagy.MiRNA have not only been confirmed as important diagnostic biomarkers for IBD.It also shows new prospects for treatment strategies for IBD.This article mainly describes the differences in miRNA expression between UC and CD,summarizes the relationship between miRNA and intestinal barrier,immune homeostasis and autophagy mechanism in the pathogenesis of IBD,and the research progress of miRNA involved in the diagnosis and treatment of IBD,so as to provide new insights for the development of IBD.

Research Progress on the Immunomodulatory Effect of Mesenchymal Stem Cells on Chronic Periodontitis

Periodontal disease is an inflammatory and destructive disease of periodontal support tissue caused by microorganisms in dental plaque. During the development of periodontal disease, host immune regulation plays an important role, and unnecessary excessive immune regulation often exacerbates the course of chronic periodontal disease. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are adult stem cells with self replication ability and multi-directional differentiation potential. Many studies have found that MSCs have strong immunosuppressive effects on both adaptive and innate immunity. In recent years, literature has reported that MSCs are involved in the immune regulatory effect of chronic periodontal disease, inhibiting its inflammatory response and alveolar bone resorption, but the specific regulatory mechanism has not been elucidated. This article reviews the current research status of the immune regulatory effects of MSCs on chronic periodontitis.

Postnatal Total Serum Protein Concentration Influences the Health and Growth Parameters of Preweaned Female Holstein Friesian Calves

This study focuses on the effect of the total serum protein(TSP)concentrations at 3 days after birth on the health and growth parameters of preweaned female Holstein Friesian calves.A total of 165 female calves were enrolled and evaluated for morbidity which included diarrhea(D),respiratory disease(Rd)and omphalitis(O).Also,calves with more than one disorder in the same time were recorded as multi-morbid.Body weight(BW)was determined at birth,30 and 60 days of age.Blood samples were taken at 3 days after birth and TSP was determined using a digital Brix refractometer.For statistical analysis all female calves based on TSP concentration were grouped into 3 categories:1-TSP≥6.2 g/dL,2-TSP 5.8-6.1 g/dL,and 3-TSP<5.8 g/dL.Overall,the average of TSP concentration was 6.38 g/dL.The prevalence of diarrhea,respiratory disease(Rd)and omphalitis(O)was 16.96%,7.88%and 4.85%respectively,in calves with one disorder and 6.06%in calves with D+Rd,3.64%in calves with Rd+O,3.03%in calves with O+D,and 3.64%in calves with D+Rd+O.As the TSP concentration in calves decreased from≥6.2 g/dL to<5.8 g/dL the calf hood disorders increased in female calves with one disorder and with more than one disorder.The female calves with fair to poor immunity(category 3-TSP<5.8 g/dL)were significantly more likely(OR 6.28,95%CI 2.91-13.5,p value<0.001)to be affected by diseases compared with female calves with excellent immunity(category 1-TSP≥6.2 g/dL).Also BW and average daily gain(ADG)at 30 and 62 days of life decreased as TSP concentrations decreased.The female calves with TSP≥6.2 g/dL at 3 days of life had the greatest BW at 30 and 62 days of age(51.8 kg and 77.1 kg respectively)compared with female calves with TSP<5.8 g/dL at 3 days of life(46.6 and 70.6 kg respectively).Moreover,starter feed intake during the first 30 days of life,31 to 62 days of life and 1 to 62 days of life was greater in female calves with excellent immunity(TSP≥6.2 g/dL)than female calves with good immunity(TSP 5.8-6.1 g/dL)or with fair to poor immunity(<5.8 g/dL TSP).Measuring the TSP at 3 days of calf’s This study focuses on the effect of the total serum protein(TSP)concentrations at 3 days after birth on the health and growth parameters of preweaned female Holstein Friesian calves.A total of 165 female calves were enrolled and evaluated for morbidity which included diarrhea(D),respiratory disease(Rd)and omphalitis(O).Also,calves with more than one disorder in the same time were recorded as multi-morbid.Body weight(BW)was determined at birth,30 and 60 days of age.Blood samples were taken at 3 days after birth and TSP was determined using a digital Brix refractometer.For statistical analysis all female calves based on TSP concentration were grouped into 3 categories:1-TSP≥6.2 g/dL,2-TSP 5.8-6.1 g/dL,and 3-TSP<5.8 g/dL.Overall,the average of TSP concentration was 6.38 g/dL.The prevalence of diarrhea,respiratory disease(Rd)and omphalitis(O)was 16.96%,7.88%and 4.85%respectively,in calves with one disorder and 6.06%in calves with D+Rd,3.64%in calves with Rd+O,3.03%in calves with O+D,and 3.64%in calves with D+Rd+O.As the TSP concentration in calves decreased from≥6.2 g/dL to<5.8 g/dL the calf hood disorders increased in female calves with one disorder and with more than one disorder.The female calves with fair to poor immunity(category 3-TSP<5.8 g/dL)were significantly more likely(OR 6.28,95%CI 2.91-13.5,p value<0.001)to be affected by diseases compared with female calves with excellent immunity(category 1-TSP≥6.2 g/dL).Also BW and average daily gain(ADG)at 30 and 62 days of life decreased as TSP concentrations decreased.The female calves with TSP≥6.2 g/dL at 3 days of life had the greatest BW at 30 and 62 days of age(51.8 kg and 77.1 kg respectively)compared with female calves with TSP<5.8 g/dL at 3 days of life(46.6 and 70.6 kg respectively).Moreover,starter feed intake during the first 30 days of life,31 to 62 days of life and 1 to 62 days of life was greater in female calves with excellent immunity(TSP≥6.2 g/dL)than female calves with good immunity(TSP 5.8-6.1 g/dL)or with fair to poor immunity(<5.8 g/dL TSP).Measuring the TSP at 3 days of calf’s life,offers information directly correlated to an individual calf’s immunity status,their likeliness of morbidity,mortality and body development and overall the effectiveness of the colostrum management program in the dairy farm.life,offers information directly correlated to an individual calf’s immunity status,their likeliness of morbidity,mortality and body development and overall the effectiveness of the colostrum management program in the dairy farm.

Exploring the relationship between gut microbial ecology and inflammatory disease:An insight into health and immune function

The immune system,host brain development,and general metabolism are all influenced by the gut bacteria.Bacteria make up the majority of the gut microbiota in mammals.The mouse has been the most often used animal model in preclinical biological research.In mice,Firmicutes and Clostridiales are prominent.On the other hand,Bacteroidaceae,Prevotellaceae,and Firmicutes are commonly found in humans.In this review,we performed a detailed study by focusing on a comparison between human and murine gut microbiomes,role of the microbiome and their secreted metabolites in regulating gut immunity to maintain homeostasis,and changes in the microbial composition in the dysbiotic state.

Insights from respiratory virus co-infections

Respiratory viral co-infections present significant challenges in clinical settings due to their impact on disease severity and patient outcomes.Current diagnostic methods often miss these co-infections,complicating the epidemiology and management of these cases.Research,primarily conducted in vitro and in vivo,suggests that co-infections can lead to more severe illnesses,increased hospitalization rates,and greater healthcare utilization,especially in high-risk groups such as children,the elderly,and immunocompromised individuals.Common coinfection patterns,risk factors,and their impact on disease dynamics highlight the need for advanced diagnostic techniques and tailored therapeutic strategies.Understanding the virological interactions and immune response modulation during co-infections is crucial for developing effective public health interventions and improving patient outcomes.Future research should focus on the molecular mechanisms of co-infection and the development of specific therapies to mitigate the adverse effects of these complex infections.

Unveiling the biological role of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators in inflammatory bowel diseases

Inflammatory bowel disease(IBD)is chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract that has a high epidemiological prevalence worldwide.The increasing disease burden worldwide,lack of response to current biologic therapeutics,and treatment-related immunogenicity have led to major concerns regarding the clinical management of IBD patients and treatment efficacy.Understanding disease pathogenesis and disease-related molecular mechanisms is the most important goal in developing new and effective therapeutics.Sphingosine-1-phosphate(S1P)receptor(S1PR)modulators form a class of oral small molecule drugs currently in clinical development for IBD have shown promising effects on disease improvement.S1P is a sphingosine-derived phospholipid that acts by binding to its receptor S1PR and is involved in the regulation of several biological processes including cell survival,differentiation,migration,proliferation,immune response,and lymphocyte trafficking.T lymphocytes play an important role in regulating inflammatory responses.In inflamed IBD tissue,an imbalance between T helper(Th)and regulatory T lymphocytes and Th cytokine levels was found.The S1P/S1PR signaling axis and metabolism have been linked to inflammatory responses in IBD.S1P modulators targeting S1PRs and S1P metabolism have been developed and shown to regulate inflammatory responses by affecting lymphocyte trafficking,lymphocyte number,lymphocyte activity,cytokine production,and contributing to gut barrier function.

Scientific connotation of “treating different diseases with the same method” from the perspective of metabolic-immune dysregulation in inflammation-mediated carcinogenesis of digestive organs

Inflammation-mediated carcinogenesis develops in the context of chronic inflammation and is a significant cause of cancer within the digestive system.In the chronic inflammation microenvironment,the metabolic activity of tissue cells undergoes extensive changes,which interfere with the normal function of immune cells.Dysregulation of cell metabolism and immune function has been identified as a key factor contributing to inflammation-mediated carcinogenesis within the major digestive organs,such as the stomach,liver,and colorectum.This metabolic-immune imbalance also corresponds to traditional Chinese medicine(TCM)theories of“yin-yang disharmony”and“disharmony between Ying-nutrients and Wei-defense.”The metabolic-immune imbalance has also been regarded as the key factor supporting“treatment of different diseases with the same method”,in which the same approach is adopted in the treatment of different conditions.In the TCM treatment process,it is necessary to first identify TCM patterns and then apply the corresponding TCM to correct the dysregulated metabolic and immune function,thereby blocking the progression from inflammation to malignancy.Our study findings deepen the TCM understanding of metabolic-immune dysregulation and the relationship between metabolic-immune dysregulation,pattern identification,and treatment method.They also provide new insights for the treatment of inflammation-mediated carcinogenesis in major digestive organs and help us further explore the scientific connotation of the TCM strategy of“treating different diseases with the same method”.

Molecular events in the jaw vascular unit:A traditional review of the mechanisms involved in inflammatory jaw bone diseases

Inflammatory jaw bone diseases are common in stomatology,including periodontitis,peri-implantitis,medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw,radiation osteomyelitis of the jaw,age-related osteoporosis,and other specific infections.These diseases may lead to tooth loss and maxillofacial deformities,severely affecting patients'quality of life.Over the years,the reconstruction of jaw bone deficiency caused by inflammatory diseases has emerged as a medical and socioeconomic challenge.Therefore,exploring the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases associated with jaw bones is crucial for improving prognosis and developing new targeted therapies.Accumulating evidence indicates that the integrated bone formation and dysfunction arise from complex interactions among a network of multiple cell types,including osteoblast-associated cells,immune cells,blood vessels,and lymphatic vessels.However,the role of these different cells in the inflammatory process and the'rules'with which they interact are still not fully understood.Although many investigations have focused on specific pathological processes and molecular events in inflammatory jaw diseases,few articles offer a perspective of integration.Here,we review the changes and mechanisms of various cell types in inflammatory jaw diseases,with the hope of providing insights to drive future research in this field.

Modellings of Infectious Diseases and Cancers under Wars and Pollution Impacts in Iraq with Reference to a Novel Mathematical Model and Literature Review

Microbial pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites and together account for a significant percentage of acute and chronic human diseases. In addition to understanding the mechanisms by which various pathogens cause human disease, research in microbial pathogenesis also addresses mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance and the development of new antimicrobial agents and vaccines. Answering fundamental questions regarding host-microbe interactions requires an interdisciplinary approach, including microbiology, genomics, informatics, molecular and cellular biology, biochemistry, immunology, epidemiology, environment and interaction between host and microbe. Studies investigating the direct effects of pollutants on respiratory tract infections are very vast, but those interested in the role of a pre-existing disease and effects of the exposure on the response to secondary stresses are few. In an experimental study at concentrations of air pollutants found in urban environments, frank toxicological responses are rarely observed, however, exposure to secondary stress like the respiratory challenge with infectious bacteria can exacerbate the response of the experimental host. The models like experimental, mechanical, and mathematical are the most abstract, but they allow analysis and logical proofs in a way that other approaches do not permit. The present review is mostly concerned with these model representations particularly with a novel mathematical model explaining the interaction between pathogen and immunity including the equivalence point.

The Perspective of Acquired Immunity to Combat against Infectious Diseases: An Overview

There is a long ritual of acquired immunity using physical exercise, a balanced diet, and pharmaceutical medication to generate immunity against a particular disease insight into the human body. This paper has extensively reviewed the impact of exercise, daily life practice, food selection, and several other issues to improve the immune system that combat infection. Studying the effect of exercise in varying degrees on the immunity system of humans is well developed and exhibit in this study. It investigates the prevention of pandemics due to herd immunity and finds the perfect amount of exercise to boost immunity to its maximum. Besides the life practice, it is also explored that vaccination can improve and optimize herd immunity.

Targeting neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease:from mechanisms to clinical applications

Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by sustained neuroinflammation leading to memory loss and cognitive decline.The past decade has witnessed tremendous efforts in Alzheimer’s disease research;however,no effective treatment is available to prevent disease progression.An increasing body of evidence suggests that neuroinflammation plays an important role in Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis,alongside the classical pathological hallmarks such as misfolded and aggregated proteins(e.g.,amyloid-beta and tau).Firstly,this review summarized the clinical and pathological characteristics of Alzheimer’s disease.Secondly,we outlined key aspects of glial cell-associated inflammation in Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis and provided the latest evidence on the roles of microglia and astrocytes in Alzheimer’s disease pathology.Then,we revealed the double-edged nature of inflammatory cytokines and inflammasomes in Alzheimer’s disease.In addition,the potential therapeutic roles of innate immunity and neuroinflammation for Alzheimer’s disease were also discussed through these mechanisms.In the final section,the remaining key problems according to the current research status were discussed.

Liver immunity,autoimmunity,and inborn errors of immunity

The liver is the front line organ of the immune system.The liver contains the largest collection of phagocytic cells in the body that detect both pathogens that enter through the gut and endogenously produced antigens.This is possible by the highly developed differentiation capacity of the liver immune system between self-antigens or non-self-antigens,such as food antigens or pathogens.As an immune active organ,the liver functions as a gatekeeping barrier from the outside world,and it can create a rapid and strong immune response,under unfavorable conditions.However,the liver's assumed immune status is anti-inflammatory or immuno-tolerant.Dynamic interactions between the numerous populations of immune cells in the liver are key for maintaining the delicate balance between immune screening and immune tolerance.The anatomical structure of the liver can facilitate the preparation of lymphocytes,modulate the immune response against hepatotropic pathogens,and contribute to some of its unique immunological properties,particularly its capacity to induce antigen-specific tolerance.Since liver sinusoidal endothelial cell is fenestrated and lacks a basement membrane,circulating lymphocytes can closely contact with antigens,displayed by endothelial cells,Kupffer cells,and dendritic cells while passing through the sinusoids.Loss of immune tolerance,leading to an autoaggressive immune response in the liver,if not controlled,can lead to the induction of autoimmune or autoinflammatory diseases.This review mentions the unique features of liver immunity,and dysregulated immune responses in patients with autoimmune liver diseases who have a close association with inborn errors of immunity have also been the emphases.

Correlative factors of poor prognosis and abnormal cellular immune function in patients with Alzheimer’s disease

BACKGROUND Alzheimer’s disease(AD)is a serious disease causing human dementia and social problems.The quality of life and prognosis of AD patients have attracted much attention.The role of chronic immune inflammation in the pathogenesis of AD is becoming more and more important.AIM To study the relationship among cognitive dysfunction,abnormal cellular immune function,neuroimaging results and poor prognostic factors in patients.METHODS A retrospective analysis of 62 hospitalized patients clinical diagnosed with AD who were admitted to our hospital from November 2015 to November 2020.Collect cognitive dysfunction performance characteristics,laboratory test data and neuroimaging data from medical records within 24 h of admission,including Mini Mental State Examination Scale score,drawing clock test,blood T lymphocyte subsets,and neutrophils and lymphocyte ratio(NLR),disturbance of consciousness,extrapyramidal symptoms,electroencephalogram(EEG)and head nucleus magnetic spectroscopy(MRS)and other data.Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine independent prog-nostic factors.the modified Rankin scale(mRS)was used to determine whether the prognosis was good.The correlation between drug treatment and prognostic mRS score was tested by the rank sum test.RESULTS Univariate analysis showed that abnormal cellular immune function,extrapyramidal symptoms,obvious disturbance of consciousness,abnormal EEG,increased NLR,abnormal MRS,and complicated pneumonia were related to the poor prognosis of AD patients.Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that the decrease in the proportion of T lym-phocytes in the blood after abnormal cellular immune function(odd ratio:2.078,95%confidence interval:1.156-3.986,P<0.05)was an independent risk factor for predicting the poor prognosis of AD.The number of days of donepezil treatment to improve cognitive function was negatively correlated with mRS score(r=0.578,P<0.05).CONCLUSION The decrease in the proportion of T lymphocytes may have predictive value for the poor prognosis of AD.It is recommended that the proportion of T lymphocytes<55%is used as the cut-off threshold for predicting the poor prog-nosis of AD.The early and continuous drug treatment is associated with a good prognosis.

Botanicals and plant strengtheners for potato and tomato cultivation in Africa

This review provides a summary of botanicals and plant strengtheners that have potential uses for disease and pest management in potato and tomato cultivation in African.We discuss their possible use to prevent major diseases and pests which infest potato and tomato,such as early and late blight,bacterial wilt,potato tuber moth,and tomato leafminer.There are several examples of the successful uses of botanicals for pathogen and pest control relevant for different African climatic conditions;however,most of these studies have been conducted in vitro and often lack field verification.Plant strengtheners(substances that induce and improve crop resistance,yield,and quality)are little studied and used in Africa in comparison to North America and Europe.The possible benefits of using botanicals and plant strengtheners instead of conventional pesticides are discussed here in relation to human health and the environment as well as their modes of action and accessibility to farmers.Lack of knowledge of the composition and active ingredients of extracts,environmental concerns,uncertainties regarding stability and formulation,lack of legislation and limited support from governments,hamper the development of botanicals and plant strengtheners for use in sustainable African agriculture.