An analysis of agarwood trade patterns,historical perspectives,and species identification challenges:repercussions for importing nations

Background:Agarwood,primarily derived from the Aquilaria and Gyrinops genera,holds significant economic importance.However,there is a lack of comprehensive investigations providing guidance to importing nations regarding cultivation quantities and expected yields of Agarwood from distinct species.This study aims to address this gap by exploring the historical context and trade evolution of Agarwood,highlighting its global importance,and the challenges associated with securing accurate species information.Method:On-site visits to Agarwood cultivation sites were conducted to gain a nuanced understanding of Aquilaria species and their cultivation requirements.Additionally,a thorough analysis of global export and import data for Agarwood products over the last decade was undertaken.Results:China Mainland emerged as the leading exporter of Agarwood,averaging an annual export value of USD 1 million.India’s substantial exports challenge the prevailing notion of limited Agarwood production within its borders.Hong Kong and Singapore are pivotal distribution hubs,while Hong Kong and Taipei feature prominently as import destinations.Our analysis uncovers anomalies in the representation of Agarwood producers from 2001 to 2008,suggesting potential misclassification of Aquilaria Agarwood as Gyrinops in global export information.These findings underscore the urgency of investigating classification and reporting practices in the Agarwood trade.Furthermore,A.filaria emerges as a notable source,while A.malaccensis is decline in prominence.Conclusion:This study provides crucial insights for policymakers,stakeholders,and industry players seeking to make informed decisions in the Agarwood trade landscape.The results highlight the need for accurate species identification,classification,and reporting practices to ensure sustainable cultivation and trade of Agarwood.

The Impact of Trade Policy Arrangements on China and World Economy in Post-MFA Era

With Multi-Fiber Arrangement (MFA) eliminated on Dec 31, 2004, the debates and concerns on the trade of textile and apparel have been growing. The objective of this study is to examine the impacts of alternative policies on China and World economy after canceling MFA. Based on a general equilibrium model of the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP), study shows that China and World will significantly benefit from further trade liberalization. However, if USA, EU and Canada converted to TBT to restrict import, the gains from eliminating MFA would be largely offset. Based on our analysis, some policy implications are discussed.

Exploring the complex structural evolution of global primary product trade network

The production and trade of primary products had a growing impact on the economic security of all countries and regions,and the strategic position of these products in the global trade network was becoming increasingly prominent.Based on complex network theory,this paper explored the spatial pattern and complex structural evolution of the global primary product trade network(GPPTN)during 1985-2015 by using index methods,such as centrality,Sankey diagram,and structure entropy,focusing on the diversified spatial structure of China’s import and export markets for primary products(with exceptions of Taiwan of China,Hong Kong of China,and Macao of China due to a lack of data)and their geographical implications for China’s energy security.The research offered the following key findings.The GPPTN showed an obvious spatial heterogeneity pattern,and the area of import consumption was more concentrated;however,the overall trend was decentralized.The trade center of gravity shifted eastwards and reflected the rise of emerging markets.The overall flow of the GPPTN was from west to east and from south to north.In terms of the community detection of the GPPTN,North America,Europe,and Asia increasingly presented an unbalanced“tripartite confrontation”.China’s exports of primary products were mainly concentrated in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN)and other peripheral regions of Asia,and its imports undergone a major transformation,gradually expanding from the peripheral regions of Asia to Africa,the Middle East,Latin America,and other parts of the world.Energy fuels also became the largest imported primary products.Based on the changing trend of structural entropy and main market share,the analysis showed that the stable supply of China’s energy diversification was gradually realized.In particular,the cooperation dividend proposed by the Belt and Road initiative became an important turning point and a strong support for the expansion of China’s energy market diversification pattern and guarantee of energy security.

Current Global Almond Trade and Its Consumption Patterns Analysis

This article aims to investigate the current situation of the international almond trade and its consumption patterns. Traditionally, almonds are characterized by their good taste and high quality and regarded as an ideal source of several natural health nutrients. At present, the United States is the leading almond producer and exporter in the world, accompanied by Germany, Spain and Japan, the biggest almond importing countries. In order to study almond consumption patterns, two indicators were used in our study, the Food Consumer Location Ratio （FCLR） and the Food Consumer Location Relative Ratio （FCLRR）. Furthermore, to identify the almond consumption groups, we carried out two cluster analyses based on FCLR and FCLRR values, Finally, an analysis of the factors which have an impact on a country＇s almond consumption was conducted. It shows that income level, endowment of resources and tradition as well as dietary habits are key factors that help to shape a country＇s almond consumption pattern.

Redefining Global Trade

Standard Bank＇s Africa-China trade and investment corridor unlocks Africa and China＇s full potential

The Micro-level Distributional Effects of Horticultural Export Value Chains Among Smallholders in Southern Ghana

Increasing foreign exchange problems and deteriorating prices of traditional exports have led policy makers and donor agencies to seek diversification in export crop production. In Ghana, crops such as pineapples and mangoes appear promising because of their high labour intensity and expanding demand for fruits in Europe. Notwithstanding, there is a possible trade-off between export and food crop production because of the possibility of resource re-allocation. So far the major concern of government has been the growth in export earnings while the micro-level distributional effects remain under-investigated. The study focused on a household survey undertaken in the forest and coastal-savannah transition zones, where the farming system has undergone transition from an established food-crop farming for urban markets to an intensive production of horticultural products for export. Logistic regression and Gini coefficient approaches were used to estimate the determinants of household food availability and income distribution respectively. Though, households engaged in export horticulture appear better-off than those that do not, the sole adoption of either staple or export crop is not sufficient for improving food availability. Consequently, linkages which allow simultaneous and reliably access to equitable distribution of resources and services are critical for household survival in competitive global food markets

A Global Emissions Trading Scheme?Fantasy and Reality

Many have argued that the international community shouM establish a global emissions trading scheme （ETS） to reduce emissions and streamline efforts to mitigate climate change. This paper argues against establishing such global ETS for the following reasons： （1） a global ETS may assist developed countries in cutting emissions abatement cost, but it may also result in deterioration in the welfare of developing countries; （2） each nation participating in providing global public goods shall be dedicated to forming ＂Lindahl equilibrium＂ under the principle of common but differentiated responsibility, rather than the ＂Walrasian equilibrium ＂, which is represented in a global ETS,＂ （3） the establishment of a global ETS has its driving forces as it is seen as a preferred regulatory form for industrial special interest groups in developed economies, since its benefits is biased rather than promoting global economic and environmental efficiency; and （4） the developing countries shouM be more cautious when designing tools of climate policies and need to avoid to be locked in emission trading systems.

A General Equilibrium Model for Energy Policy Evaluation Using GTAP-E for Vietnam

In the past several years, there has been growing concern on the scarcity of energy resources, the volatility of energy prices, and the impact of energy sector on climate change. In this context, energy-environment models designed for analysis of energy systems have become more important. In this paper, a Computable General Equilibrium Model （CGE） using an energy-environmental version of Global Trade Analysis Project （GTAP） model （known as GTAP-E） for Vietnam is presented based on the GTAP Data Base version 7. The model is developed following the original structure and the revised version of the GTAP-E model. This model is used to simulate the adoption of carbon tax for Vietnam for the base year of 2004. The economy-level and detailed sector-specific effects are also examined considering energy intensive and non-intensive sectors. Simulation results show the negative influences of different carbon tax scenarios to Vietnam＇s economy. The results would also indicate the potential of carbon taxation as a driving force for the mitigation of carbon dioxide and for new and renewable energy promotion in Vietnam. In fact, this study is the first simulation exercise of energy-environmental policy for the Vietnamese case.

Voices

Tang Kai： Don’t Turn Real Estate into a Casino ,Hu Xiaolian：Dont Overestimate the Power of Exchange Rate in Reducing Global Trade Imbalances

The trade network of the Belt and Road Initiative and its topological relationship to the global trade network

Unimpeded trade is one of the cooperation priorities in the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China. On 15 May 2017, the Joint Communique of the Leaders Roundtable of the Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation reaffirmed the participants＇ shared commitment to build an open economy and ensure free and inclusive trade. The Belt and Road Initiative （BRI） is not only China＇s new action to drive its open and global develoPment, but also a platform for an increasing number of countries to explore free and inclusive trade and promote a universal, rule-based, open, non-discriminatory, and equitable multilateral trade system. It is therefore important to examine BRI and global trade networks. More specifically, the topological relationship between the this article first analyzes the community structure of trade networks using a community detection algorithm, and then estimates the topological relationship between different trade communities. The findings of this article are as follows. First, this research identified three trade communities and two sub-communities in the BRI trade network, in which China is the core, Russia is the sub-core of the biggest trade community, and India, United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia are cores of the second trade community （South Asia-West Asia）. Second, it identified five trade communities in the global trade network, centred on China, USA, Russia, India-United Arab Emirates, and Ger- many-Netherlands-France-Britain and other European developed countries. Third, the topo- logical analysis indicated that in the global trade network, most BRI countries are attracted by the core nodes of the BRI regions, such as the China, Russia and India-United Arab Emirates core nodes, and have strong trade contacts with BRI countries. Most Central-East European countries are mainly attracted by Germany-Netherlands-France-Britain and other developed European countries with a low penetration of BRI trade. Although some Southeast Asian countries are incorporated into the Asia-Australia-South Africa community with China as the core, they still need to strengthen trade linkages with BRI countries.

The future of global trade in the presence of the Sino-US trade war

The looming of a vindictive spirit owing to dishevelled trade relations amidst China and the US seems to be near.Never has it been so apparent than now.The US has had itself as the largest economy on the world stage and China’s attempt at shuffling this incumbency has led the US to open a tariff fire on Chinese imports.The tariff brawl appears to be not settling anytime soon as the retaliatory measures are swelling incessantly.Being the two largest economies of the world,giving in for disengaging trade with each other is bound to have a ripple effect on the global system of trade.Where the detesting to barrier-free trade on the part of the US and China are certain to inflict pain upon both countries,it might come as a benefit for other countries.This research explores the movement in global trade springing out of the Sino-US trade war.

Impact of Chinese Characteristics on the World Trade Organization： Challenges and Strategies

Following China＇s accession to the World Trade Organization （WTO）, it has been impossible to overlook the influence of its economy on the multilateral trading system. Many published studies have examined why China joined the WTO and the comprehensive impacts of WTO membership on China, but few studies have focused on China＇s impact on the WTO. This article attempts to fill this gap by examining China＇s changing role in the multilateral trading system from political and legal perspectives, seeking to shed light on how Chinese characteristics have reshaped the power structure and rule-based system of the WTO. While its accession has made the WTO more relevant in regards to global trade governance, China has been accused of upsetting the WTO＇s rules-based system because of its unique political and economic regime. The WTO and its members should take the Chinese characteristics into consideration and regulate China＇s practices through using the dispute settlement mechanism, promoting China＇s accession to plurilateral agreements and adopting a ＂＇soft law ＂＂ approach.

Beijing Global Trade Center—A Business Hub

Located along the Beisanhuanlu, the Beijing Global Trade Center (GTC) boasts the largest office buildings in north Beijing. The GTC covers an area of nearly 500,000 square meters, integrating 5 A-grade intelligent

Global Trade Center,A New Landmark Project in Anzhen Area

The overall planning of Beijing Global Trade Center (GTC) is being carried out by the U.S. designing firm EDAW and the first-phase office building has already been put into use, while the second and third phases are under construction. Guided by the modernity, hi-tech design, a human-oriented approach, and the integration of land-

Shanghai Pilot Free Trade Zone and the National Strategy of Opening-up to Boost Reform

China＇s Shanghai Pilot Free Trade Zone （hereinafter referred to as ＂SHFTZ＂） has been running for more than one year so far. The establishment of the SHFTZ is an important Chinese strategy in a key stage when the global and Chinese economies are both undergoing significant transitions, which will have a far-reaching impact on China＇s transformation and development in the long term. Based on his own experience accumulated from participating in the preparation of the overall plan for the SHFTZ and his observations since its official operation officially began, the author conducts review of issues such as expected goals, selection of implementation methods and determination of evaluation criteria with respect to the establishment of the SHFTZ. In his view, the SHFTZ is a key element in China＇s national strategy of using opening-up to force further reforms.

Global Trade Center Named China’s Most Celebrated Real Estate Project of 2008-09

On February 12,the Ninth Annual Workshop of Chinese Real Estate Development 2009 was held at the Beijing International Hotel with the theme

GLOBAL TRADE CONUNDRUM

Washington's recent actions against China over trade disputes and Beijing's strong reactions to those measures have heightened fears that mounting friction over bilateral trade will intensify.It is now"urgent"to get the China-U.S.trade relationship correct,said Stephen Roach,newly appointed Chairman of Morgan Stanley Asia.Roach,who for the past 16 years served as Morgan Stanley's chief economist,predicts a more broad-based consumer led growth in China in the next five years.He is also convinced that serious initiatives to be undertaken by the U.S.Government to penalize Chinese products as they are sold in the United States will be a big mistake.Beijing Review spoke to him about these and other aspects of Sino-U.S.trade and China's new economic growth model.

Why Trade Is Hated

How the multilateral trading system has run out of appeal In his first policy announcement after election,U.S.

No Threshold for Free Trade

In commemoration of the 15th anniversary of China’s accession to the WTO,Beijing Review reporter Deng Yaqing interviewed Xue Rongjiu,Vice Chairman of China Society for WTO Studies,on China’s gains from and contributions to the multilateral trading system,market economy status,surrogate country issues and mounting anti-globalization and trade protection.Edited excerpts of the interview follow: