Mozambique Ports in the 16th Century： Trade Routes, Changes, and Knowledge in the Indian Ocean Under Portuguese Rule

Arriving to the east African coast in the 16th century, Portuguese faced an important and well-structured commercial network dominated by Muslim merchants. Operating throughout the Indian Ocean and in articulation with the inland African trade routes by way of the coastal settlements from Bazaruto up to the north of Mozambique, this network bustled luxury goods and basic goods benefiting either from a network of inter-personal relationships and kinship that supported the whole business, or from an ancestral knowledge on the techniques and particular procedures indispensable to navigating in the Indian Ocean. This trade made the prosperity of small southern ports, like Sofala or Mozambique long before the Portuguese arrival. However, this trade was so much dependent on the network＇s capacity of organisation and the supply demand relation of the goods involved, as well as on other factors such as the political stability of the African kingdoms, the environmental changes that shaped flows and trade routes or the actual knowledge of the region and of the different forms of organization of local communities. By focusing in the ports of Sofala and Mozambique and the information provided by the Portuguese documents we intend to analyse its evolution during the 16th century in order to understand its role in the Indian Ocean commercial network under Portuguese rule.

Evolutionary process and development implications of traditional trade routes in the Himalayan region

Traditional trade routes that penetrate the natural barrier of the Himalayas are critical for connecting major Chinese and South Asian markets.Research on these trade routes can contribute significantly to facilitating the construction of the South Asian Corridor and enhancing trans-Himalayan connectivity.Combining historical literature,field surveys,and geographic information system(GIS)techniques,this study examined the spatial distribution characteristics and evolution process of the routes,focusing on transverse valleys of the Himalayan arc.The key findings were as follows.First,there are 21 traditional trade routes traversing the Himalayan region:six Sino-Nepalese routes,four Sino-Bhutanese routes,and eleven Sino-Indian routes.Second,the evolution of traditional trade routes has entailed five distinct phases:an incipient period(pre-7th century),formation(7th century-842 AD),development(842-1959),decline(1959-1962)and recovery(1962-present).Third,the incipient and formative developmental phases were prompted by the spread of Buddhism and the exchange of goods.The stability of local governments in Tibet and Central China and favourable border trade policies along with Britain’s colonial expansion and commercial interests stimulated further development of traditional trade routes.However,India’s strategic miscalculation and“Forward Policy”instigated the decline phase,while the demands of regional cooperation and development are currently the key drivers of the restoration and construction phase.Finally,to shelve disputes,promote cooperation and development,and enhance political mutual trust,governments should recover and construct traditional trade routes by replanning and constructing border trade markets,expanding border trade,developing pilgrimage and tourism,and strengthening cross-border cooperative resear h under global climate change.

Geo-politicai Significance of the Wakhan Corridor for China

The Wakhan Corridor is surrounded by the Mackinder＇s Heart Land. Located at the cross roads of four countries： Main land Afghanistan, Tajikistan, China, and Pakistan. The Wakhan Corridor has been the most important junction point of the Silk Route since its inception. The corridor has long been used as a trade route by Europeans and Chinese to reach the Indian Plains and the Indian Ocean＇s Sea Lines of Communications through the Arabian Sea Coasts. Extra regional aspects in forms of quest for the Great Game between Russia and Britain since 1838, the Chinese Communist Revolution of 1949, the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan for a decade followed by the NATO invasion of Afghanistan since 2001 has unfortunately kept any kind of infrastructural development in Wakhan as a fallacy. The opening up of Wakhjir Pass by China will surely improve regional trade and relations; however, India feels threatened as it thinks that the opening up of the Wakhan Corridor will be an outflanking maneuvre against its interests in Indianheld Kashmir; however, it cannot remain aloof of other regional and extra regional players and will be forced to share Central Asian energy resources for its economic development along with countries under the U.S. umbrella. The U.S. in combination with China must play its role for enhancing regional stability.