A phenology-based vegetation index for improving ratoon rice mapping using harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 data

Ratoon rice,which refers to a second harvest of rice obtained from the regenerated tillers originating from the stubble of the first harvested crop,plays an important role in both food security and agroecology while requiring minimal agricultural inputs.However,accurately identifying ratoon rice crops is challenging due to the similarity of its spectral features with other rice cropping systems(e.g.,double rice).Moreover,images with a high spatiotemporal resolution are essential since ratoon rice is generally cultivated in fragmented croplands within regions that frequently exhibit cloudy and rainy weather.In this study,taking Qichun County in Hubei Province,China as an example,we developed a new phenology-based ratoon rice vegetation index(PRVI)for the purpose of ratoon rice mapping at a 30 m spatial resolution using a robust time series generated from Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2(HLS)images.The PRVI that incorporated the red,near-infrared,and shortwave infrared 1 bands was developed based on the analysis of spectro-phenological separability and feature selection.Based on actual field samples,the performance of the PRVI for ratoon rice mapping was carefully evaluated by comparing it to several vegetation indices,including normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI),enhanced vegetation index(EVI)and land surface water index(LSWI).The results suggested that the PRVI could sufficiently capture the specific characteristics of ratoon rice,leading to a favorable separability between ratoon rice and other land cover types.Furthermore,the PRVI showed the best performance for identifying ratoon rice in the phenological phases characterized by grain filling and harvesting to tillering of the ratoon crop(GHS-TS2),indicating that only several images are required to obtain an accurate ratoon rice map.Finally,the PRVI performed better than NDVI,EVI,LSWI and their combination at the GHS-TS2 stages,with producer's accuracy and user's accuracy of 92.22 and 89.30%,respectively.These results demonstrate that the proposed PRVI based on HLS data can effectively identify ratoon rice in fragmented croplands at crucial phenological stages,which is promising for identifying the earliest timing of ratoon rice planting and can provide a fundamental dataset for crop management activities.

Response of vegetation variation to climate change and human activities in the Shiyang River Basin of China during 2001-2022

Understanding the response of vegetation variation to climate change and human activities is critical for addressing future conflicts between humans and the environment,and maintaining ecosystem stability.Here,we aimed to identify the determining factors of vegetation variation and explore the sensitivity of vegetation to temperature(SVT)and the sensitivity of vegetation to precipitation(SVP)in the Shiyang River Basin(SYRB)of China during 2001-2022.The climate data from climatic research unit(CRU),vegetation index data from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS),and land use data from Landsat images were used to analyze the spatial-temporal changes in vegetation indices,climate,and land use in the SYRB and its sub-basins(i.e.,upstream,midstream,and downstream basins)during 2001-2022.Linear regression analysis and correlation analysis were used to explore the SVT and SVP,revealing the driving factors of vegetation variation.Significant increasing trends(P<0.05)were detected for the enhanced vegetation index(EVI)and normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI)in the SYRB during 2001-2022,with most regions(84%)experiencing significant variation in vegetation,and land use change was determined as the dominant factor of vegetation variation.Non-significant decreasing trends were detected in the SVT and SVP of the SYRB during 2001-2022.There were spatial differences in vegetation variation,SVT,and SVP.Although NDVI and EVI exhibited increasing trends in the upstream,midstream,and downstream basins,the change slope in the downstream basin was lower than those in the upstream and midstream basins,the SVT in the upstream basin was higher than those in the midstream and downstream basins,and the SVP in the downstream basin was lower than those in the upstream and midstream basins.Temperature and precipitation changes controlled vegetation variation in the upstream and midstream basins while human activities(land use change)dominated vegetation variation in the downstream basin.We concluded that there is a spatial heterogeneity in the response of vegetation variation to climate change and human activities across different sub-basins of the SYRB.These findings can enhance our understanding of the relationship among vegetation variation,climate change,and human activities,and provide a reference for addressing future conflicts between humans and the environment in the arid inland river basins.

Feature extraction and analysis of reclaimed vegetation in ecological restoration area of abandoned mines based on hyperspectral remote sensing images

The vegetation growth status largely represents the ecosystem function and environmental quality.Hyperspectral remote sensing data can effectively eliminate the effects of surface spectral reflectance and atmospheric scattering and directly reflect the vegetation parameter information.In this study,the abandoned mining area in the Helan Mountains,China was taken as the study area.Based on hyperspectral remote sensing images of Zhuhai No.1 hyperspectral satellite,we used the pixel dichotomy model,which was constructed using the normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI),to estimate the vegetation coverage of the study area,and evaluated the vegetation growth status by five vegetation indices(NDVI,ratio vegetation index(RVI),photochemical vegetation index(PVI),red-green ratio index(RGI),and anthocyanin reflectance index 1(ARI1)).According to the results,the reclaimed vegetation growth status in the study area can be divided into four levels(unhealthy,low healthy,healthy,and very healthy).The overall vegetation growth status in the study area was generally at low healthy level,indicating that the vegetation growth status in the study area was not good due to short-time period restoration and harsh damaged environment such as high and steep rock slopes.Furthermore,the unhealthy areas were mainly located in Dawukougou where abandoned mines were concentrated,indicating that the original mining activities have had a large effect on vegetation ecology.After ecological restoration of abandoned mines,the vegetation coverage in the study area has increased to a certain extent,but the amplitude was not large.The situation of vegetation coverage in the northern part of the study area was worse than that in the southern part,due to abandoned mines mainly concentrating in the northern part of the Helan Mountains.The combination of hyperspectral remote sensing data and vegetation indices can comprehensively extract the characteristics of vegetation,accurately analyze the plant growth status,and provide technical support for vegetation health evaluation.

Impact of climate and human activity on NDVI of various vegetation types in the Three-River Source Region, China

The Three-River Source Region(TRSR)in China holds a vital position and exhibits an irreplaceable strategic importance in ecological preservation at the national level.On the basis of an in-depth study of the vegetation evolution in the TRSR from 2000 to 2022,we conducted a detailed analysis of the feedback mechanism of vegetation growth to climate change and human activity for different vegetation types.During the growing season,the spatiotemporal variations of normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI)for different vegetation types in the TRSR were analyzed using the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS)-NDVI data and meteorological data from 2000 to 2022.In addition,the response characteristics of vegetation to temperature,precipitation,and human activity were assessed using trend analysis,partial correlation analysis,and residual analysis.Results indicated that,after in-depth research,from 2000 to 2022,the TRSR's average NDVI during the growing season was 0.3482.The preliminary ranking of the average NDVI for different vegetation types was as follows:shrubland(0.5762)>forest(0.5443)>meadow(0.4219)>highland vegetation(0.2223)>steppe(0.2159).The NDVI during the growing season exhibited a fluctuating growth trend,with an average growth rate of 0.0018/10a(P<0.01).Notably,forests displayed a significant development trend throughout the growing season,possessing the fastest rate of change in NDVI(0.0028/10a).Moreover,the upward trends in NDVI for forests and steppes exhibited extensive spatial distributions,with significant increases accounting for 95.23%and 93.80%,respectively.The sensitivity to precipitation was significantly enhanced in other vegetation types other than highland vegetation.By contrast,steppes,meadows,and highland vegetation demonstrated relatively high vulnerability to temperature fluctuations.A further detailed analysis revealed that climate change had a significant positive impact on the TRSR from 2000 to 2022,particularly in its northwestern areas,accounting for 85.05%of the total area.Meanwhile,human activity played a notable positive role in the southwestern and southeastern areas of the TRSR,covering 62.65%of the total area.Therefore,climate change had a significantly higher impact on NDVI during the growing season in the TRSR than human activity.

Impacts of climate change and human activities on vegetation dynamics on the Mongolian Plateau, East Asia from 2000 to 2023

The Mongolian Plateau in East Asia is one of the largest contingent arid and semi-arid areas of the world.Under the impacts of climate change and human activities,desertification is becoming increasingly severe on the Mongolian Plateau.Understanding the vegetation dynamics in this region can better characterize its ecological changes.In this study,based on Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS)images,we calculated the kernel normalized difference vegetation index(kNDVI)on the Mongolian Plateau from 2000 to 2023,and analyzed the changes in kNDVI using the Theil-Sen median trend analysis and Mann-Kendall significance test.We further investigated the impact of climate change on kNDVI change using partial correlation analysis and composite correlation analysis,and quantified the effects of climate change and human activities on kNDVI change by residual analysis.The results showed that kNDVI on the Mongolian Plateau was increasing overall,and the vegetation recovery area in the southern region was significantly larger than that in the northern region.About 50.99%of the plateau showed dominant climate-driven effects of temperature,precipitation,and wind speed on kNDVI change.Residual analysis showed that climate change and human activities together contributed to 94.79%of the areas with vegetation improvement.Appropriate human activities promoted the recovery of local vegetation,and climate change inhibited vegetation growth in the northern part of the Mongolian Plateau.This study provides scientific data for understanding the regional ecological environment status and future changes and developing effective ecological protection measures on the Mongolian Plateau.

Coupled effects of climate change and human activities on vegetation dynamics in the Southwestern Alpine Canyon Region of China

The driving effects of climate change and human activities on vegetation change have always been a focal point of research.However,the coupling mechanisms of these driving factors across different temporal and spatial scales remain controversial.The Southwestern Alpine Canyon Region of China(SACR),as an ecologically fragile area,is highly sensitive to the impacts of climate change and human activities.This study constructed a vegetation cover dataset for the SACR based on the Enhanced Vegetation Index(EVI)from 2000 to 2020.Spatial autocorrelation,Theil-Sen trend,and Mann-Kendall tests were used to analyze the spatiotemporal characteristics of vegetation cover changes.The main drivers of spatial heterogeneity in vegetation cover were identified using the optimal parameter geographic detector,and an improved residual analysis model was employed to quantify the relative contributions of climate change and human activities to interannual vegetation cover changes.The main findings are as follows:Spatially,vegetation cover exceeds 60%in most areas,especially in the southern part of the study area.However,the border area between Linzhi and Changdu exhibits lower vegetation cover.Climate factors are the primary drivers of spatial heterogeneity in vegetation cover,with temperature having the most significant influence,as indicated by its q-value,which far exceeds that of other factors.Additionally,the interaction q-value between the two factors significantly increases,showing a relationship of bivariate enhancement and nonlinear enhancement.In terms of temporal changes,vegetation cover shows an overall improving trend from 2000 to 2020,with significant increases observed in 68.93%of the study area.Among these,human activities are the main factors driving vegetation cover change,with a relative contribution rate of 41.31%,while climate change and residual factors contribute 35.66%and 23.53%,respectively.By thoroughly exploring the coupled mechanisms of vegetation change,this study provides important references for the sustainable management and conservation of the vegetation ecosystem in the SACR.

Drivers,Trends,and Patterns of Changing Vegetation-greenness in Nansha Islands,China from 2016 to 2022

Changes in vegetation status generally also represents changes in the ecological health of islands and reefs(IRs).However,studies are limited of drivers and trends of vegetation change of Nansha Islands,China and how they relate to climate change and human activities.To resolve this limitation,we studied changes to the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI)vegetation-greenness index for 22 IRs of Nansha Islands during normal and extreme conditions.Trends of vegetation greenness were analyzed using Sen's slope and Mann-Kendall test at two spatial scales(pixel and island),and driving factor analyses were performed by time-lagged partial correlation analyses.These were related to impacts from human activities and climatic factors under normal(temperature,precipitation,radiation,and Normalized Difference Built-up Index(NDBI))and extreme conditions(wind speed and latitude of IRs)from 2016 to 2022.Results showed:1)among the 22 IRs,NDVI increased/decreased significantly in 15/4 IRs,respectively.Huayang Reef had the highest NDVI change-rate(0.48%/mon),and Zhongye Island had the lowest(–0.29%/mon).Local spatial patterns were in one of two forms:dotted-form,and degradation in banded-form.2)Under normal conditions,human activities(characterized by NDBI)had higher impacts on vegetation-greenness than other factors.3)Under extreme conditions,wind speed(R^(2)=0.2337,P<0.05)and latitude(R^(2)=0.2769,P<0.05)provided limited explanation for changes from typhoon events.Our results provide scientific support for the sustainable development of Nansha Islands and the United Nations‘Ocean Decade’initiative.

Climate-Vegetation Coverage Interactions in the Hengduan Mountains Area, Southeastern Tibetan Plateau, and Their Downstream Effects

Little is known about the mechanism of climate-vegetation coverage coupled changes in the Tibetan Plateau(TP)region,which is the most climatically sensitive and ecologically fragile region with the highest terrain in the world.This study,using multisource datasets(including satellite data and meteorological observations and reanalysis data)revealed the mutual feedback mechanisms between changes in climate(temperature and precipitation)and vegetation coverage in recent decades in the Hengduan Mountains Area(HMA)of the southeastern TP and their influences on climate in the downstream region,the Sichuan Basin(SCB).There is mutual facilitation between rising air temperature and increasing vegetation coverage in the HMA,which is most significant during winter,and then during spring,but insignificant during summer and autumn.Rising temperature significantly enhances local vegetation coverage,and vegetation greening in turn heats the atmosphere via enhancing net heat flux from the surface to the atmosphere.The atmospheric heating anomaly over the HMA thickens the atmospheric column and increases upper air pressure.The high pressure anomaly disperses downstream via the westerly flow,expands across the SCB,and eventually increases the SCB temperature.This effect lasts from winter to the following spring,which may cause the maximum increasing trend of the SCB temperature and vegetation coverage in spring.These results are helpful for estimating future trends in climate and eco-environmental variations in the HMA and SCB under warming scenarios,as well as seasonal forecasting based on the connection between the HMA eco-environment and SCB climate.

Improving the Accuracy of Vegetation Index Retrieval for Biomass by Combining Ground-UAV Hyperspectral Data-A New Method for Inner Mongolia Typical Grasslands

Grassland biomass is an important parameter of grassland ecosystems.The complexity of the grassland canopy vegetation spectrum makes the long-term assessment of grassland growth a challenge.Few studies have explored the original spectral information of typical grasslands in Inner Mongolia and examined the influence of spectral information on aboveground biomass(AGB)estimation.In order to improve the accuracy of vegetation index inversion of grassland AGB,this study combined ground and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle(UAV)remote sensing technology and screened sensitive bands through ground hyperspectral data transformation and correlation analysis.The narrow band vegetation indices were calculated,and ground and airborne hyperspectral inversion models were established.Finally,the accuracy of the model was verified.The results showed that:(1)The vegetation indices constructed based on the ASD FieldSpec 4 and the UAV were significantly correlated with the dry and fresh weight of AGB.(2)The comparison between measured R^(2) with the prediction R^(2) indicated that the accuracy of the model was the best when using the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index(SAVI)as the independent variable in the analysis of AGB(fresh weight/dry weight)and four narrow-band vegetation indices.The SAVI vegetation index showed better applicability for biomass monitoring in typical grassland areas of Inner Mongolia.(3)The obtained ground and airborne hyperspectral data with the optimal vegetation index suggested that the dry weight of AGB has the best fitting effect with airborne hyperspectral data,where y=17.962e^(4.672x),the fitting R^(2) was 0.542,the prediction R^(2)was 0.424,and RMSE and REE were 57.03 and 0.65,respectively.Therefore,established vegetation indices by screening sensitive bands through hyperspectral feature analysis can significantly improve the inversion accuracy of typical grassland biomass in Inner Mongolia.Compared with ground monitoring,airborne hyperspectral monitoring better reflects the inversion of actual surface biomass.It provides a reliable modeling framework for grassland AGB monitoring and scientific and technological support for grazing management.

Assessment of vegetation cover changes and the contributing factors in the Al-Ahsa Oasis using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI)

The abandonment of date palm grove of the former Al-Ahsa Oasis in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia has resulted in the conversion of delicate agricultural area into urban area.The current state of the oasis is influenced by both expansion and degradation factors.Therefore,it is important to study the spatiotemporal variation of vegetation cover for the sustainable management of oasis resources.This study used Landsat satellite images in 1987,2002,and 2021 to monitor the spatiotemporal variation of vegetation cover in the Al-Ahsa Oasis,applied multi-temporal Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI)data spanning from 1987 to 2021 to assess environmental and spatiotemporal variations that have occurred in the Al-Ahsa Oasis,and investigated the factors influencing these variation.This study reveals that there is a significant improvement in the ecological environment of the oasis during 1987–2021,with increase of NDVI values being higher than 0.10.In 2021,the highest NDVI value is generally above 0.70,while the lowest value remains largely unchanged.However,there is a remarkable increase in NDVI values between 0.20 and 0.30.The area of low NDVI values(0.00–0.20)has remained almost stable,but the region with high NDVI values(above 0.70)expands during 1987–2021.Furthermore,this study finds that in 1987–2002,the increase of vegetation cover is most notable in the northern region of the study area,whereas from 2002 to 2021,the increase of vegetation cover is mainly concentrated in the northern and southern regions of the study area.From 1987 to 2021,NDVI values exhibit the most pronounced variation,with a significant increase in the“green”zone(characterized by NDVI values exceeding 0.40),indicating a substantial enhancement in the ecological environment of the oasis.The NDVI classification is validated through 50 ground validation points in the study area,demonstrating a mean accuracy of 92.00%in the detection of vegetation cover.In general,both the user’s and producer’s accuracies of NDVI classification are extremely high in 1987,2002,and 2021.Finally,this study suggests that environmental authorities should strengthen their overall forestry project arrangements to combat sand encroachment and enhance the ecological environment of the Al-Ahsa Oasis.

Combining RUSLE model and the vegetation health index to unravel the relationship between soil erosion and droughts in southeastern Tunisia

Droughts and soil erosion are among the most prominent climatic driven hazards in drylands,leading to detrimental environmental impacts,such as degraded lands,deteriorated ecosystem services and biodiversity,and increased greenhouse gas emissions.In response to the current lack of studies combining drought conditions and soil erosion processes,in this study,we developed a comprehensive Geographic Information System(GIS)-based approach to assess soil erosion and droughts,thereby revealing the relationship between soil erosion and droughts under an arid climate.The vegetation condition index(VCI)and temperature condition index(TCI)derived respectively from the enhanced vegetation index(EVI)MOD13A2 and land surface temperature(LST)MOD11A2 products were combined to generate the vegetation health index(VHI).The VHI has been conceived as an efficient tool to monitor droughts in the Negueb watershed,southeastern Tunisia.The revised universal soil loss equation(RUSLE)model was applied to quantitatively estimate soil erosion.The relationship between soil erosion and droughts was investigated through Pearson correlation.Results exhibited that the Negueb watershed experienced recurrent mild to extreme drought during 2000–2016.The average soil erosion rate was determined to be 1.8 t/(hm2•a).The mountainous western part of the watershed was the most vulnerable not only to soil erosion but also to droughts.The slope length and steepness factor was shown to be the most significant controlling parameter driving soil erosion.The relationship between droughts and soil erosion had a positive correlation(r=0.3);however,the correlation was highly varied spatially across the watershed.Drought was linked to soil erosion in the Negueb watershed.The current study provides insight for natural disaster risk assessment,land managers,and stake-holders to apply appropriate management measures to promote sustainable development goals in fragile environments.

Recent Vegetation Cover Dynamics and Climatic Parameters Evolution Study in the Great Green Wall of Senegal

The drought recorded in 1970s and 1980s, particularly in the Sahara and Sahel region has greatly affected the population as well as the economies and the eco-systems of this area. In 2007, the African Union launched a Pan-African program, the Great Green Wall for the Sahara, the Sahel Initiative (GGWSSI) to reverse land degradation and desertification by planting a wall of trees stretching from Dakar to Djibouti. The objective is to improve food security, and support local people to adapt to climate change. This paper aims to evaluate the impacts of the reforestation program in Senegal, fifteen years after it was launched. This study uses a time series of satellite-derived vegetation cover and climatic parameters data to analyze the sustainability of these interventions. Change detection approaches were applied to identify and characterize the drives of the eventual changes. A comparative analysis of reforestation on climatic parameters was explored through the temporal analysis of the vegetation index over the periods 2000-2008 and 2009-2020. An increase in vegetation activity was noted through the NDVI at the interannual (+2% to +8%) and seasonal (+1.5% to 7% for the wet season and 1% to 4% for the dry season) scale and a positive and significant evolution is noted on the trace of the GGW. Also, the period 2009-2020 recorded an increase in rainfall of 2% to 8% of the average value 2000-2020 and 4% to 8% of the rainy season. Soil moisture is the climatic parameter that has increased the most, with an increase of 25% to 54% of the 2000-2020 average, i.e. between 20 mm and 70 mm more. This study shows a significant improvement in the relationship between NDVI and climate parameters after the different reforestation actions of the GGW.

Monitoring vegetation drought in the nine major river basins of China based on a new developed Vegetation Drought Condition Index

The effect of global climate change on vegetation growth is variable.Timely and effective monitoring of vegetation drought is crucial for understanding its dynamics and mitigation,and even regional protection of ecological environments.In this study,we constructed a new drought index(i.e.,Vegetation Drought Condition Index(VDCI))based on precipitation,potential evapotranspiration,soil moisture and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI)data,to monitor vegetation drought in the nine major river basins(including the Songhua River and Liaohe River Basin,Haihe River Basin,Yellow River Basin,Huaihe River Basin,Yangtze River Basin,Southeast River Basin,Pearl River Basin,Southwest River Basin and Continental River Basin)in China at 1-month–12-month(T1–T12)time scales.We used the Pearson's correlation coefficients to assess the relationships between the drought indices(the developed VDCI and traditional drought indices including the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index(SPEI),Standardized Soil Moisture Index(SSMI)and Self-calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index(scPDSI))and the NDVI at T1–T12 time scales,and to estimate and compare the lag times of vegetation response to drought among different drought indices.The results showed that precipitation and potential evapotranspiration have positive and major influences on vegetation in the nine major river basins at T1–T6 time scales.Soil moisture shows a lower degree of negative influence on vegetation in different river basins at multiple time scales.Potential evapotranspiration shows a higher degree of positive influence on vegetation,and it acts as the primary influencing factor with higher area proportion at multiple time scales in different river basins.The VDCI has a stronger relationship with the NDVI in the Songhua River and Liaohe River Basin,Haihe River Basin,Yellow River Basin,Huaihe River Basin and Yangtze River Basin at T1–T4 time scales.In general,the VDCI is more sensitive(with shorter lag time of vegetation response to drought)than the traditional drought indices(SPEI,scPDSI and SSMI)in monitoring vegetation drought,and thus it could be applied to monitor short-term vegetation drought.The VDCI developed in the study can reveal the law of unclear mechanisms between vegetation and climate,and can be applied in other fields of vegetation drought monitoring with complex mechanisms.

Enhanced soil moisture improves vegetation growth in an arid grassland of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China

Climate change impacts on grasslands that cover a quarter of the global land area, have become unprecedented during the 21~(st) century. One of the important ecological realms, arid grasslands of northern China, which occupy more than 70% of the region's land area. However, the impact of climate change on vegetation growth in these arid grasslands is not consistent and lacks corresponding quantitative research. In this study, NDVI(normalized difference vegetation index) and climate factors including temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, soil moisture, and meteorological drought were analyzed to explore the determinants of changes in grassland greenness in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region(northern China) during 1982–2016. The results showed that grasslands in Inner Mongolia witnessed an obvious trend of seasonal greening during the study period. Two prominent climatic factors,precipitation and soil moisture accounted for approximately 33% and 27% of grassland NDVI trends in the region based on multiple linear regression and boosted regression tree methods. This finding highlights the impact of water constraints to vegetation growth in Inner Mongolia's grasslands. The dominant role of precipitation in regulating grassland NDVI trends in Inner Mongolia significantly weakened from 1982 to 1996, and the role of soil moisture strengthened after 1996. Our findings emphasize the enhanced importance of soil moisture in driving vegetation growth in arid grasslands of Inner Mongolia, which should be thoroughly investigated in the future.

Intra-annual Vegetation Change Characteristics in the NDVI-Ts Space:Application to Farming-Pastoral Zone in North China

Land use/land cover change (LUCC) mapping and analysis using multi-temporal normalize difference vegetation index (NDVI) data have been well documented. Recent empirical studies have documented that many new methods with high accuracy of retrieved land surface temperature ( Ts) have been developed. Thus, the combination of land surface temperature and NDVI has the greatest potential to improve the surface vegetation dynamic monitoring. In this study, the following objectives are pursued to: (1) introduce the practical method to produce the Ts, NDVI and Ts/NDVI based on remotely sensed data; (2) investigate the different retrieved result of vegetation cover information from NDVI, Ts and Ts/NDVI data sets, and analyze the intra-annual time trajectories of different vegetation cover categories in the NDVI- Ts space for farming-pastoral zone in North China, and (3) quantitative analysis the difference in using NDVI, Ts and Ts/NDVI data sets to express information based on the indices (information entropy and averaged information grads), and evaluate the relative role of Ts/NDVI data set in the discrimination of different vegetation cover categories through comparison to traditional NDVI data set.

Spatial distribution characteristics of climate-induced landslides in the Eastern Himalayas

Climate warming is constantly causing hydro-meteorological perturbations,especially in high-altitude mountainous regions,which lead to the occurrences of landslides.The impact of climatic variables(i.e.,precipitation and temperature)on the distribution of landslides in the eastern regions of the Himalayas is poorly understood.To address this,the current study analyzes the relationship between the spatial distribution of landslide characteristics and climatic variables from 2013 to 2021.Google Earth Engine(GEE)was employed to make landslide inventories using satellite data.The results show that 2163,6927,and 9601 landslides were heterogeneously distributed across the study area in 2013,2017,and 2021,respectively.The maximum annual temperature was positively correlated with the distribution of landslides,whereas precipitation was found to have a non-significant impact on the landslide distribution.Spatially,most of the landslides occurred in areas with maximum annual precipitation ranging from 800 to 1600 mm and maximum annual temperature above 15℃.However,in certain regions,earthquake disruptions marginally affected the occurrence of landslides.Landslides were highly distributed in areas with elevations ranging between 3000 and 5000 m above sea level,and many landslides occurred near the lower permafrost limit and close to glaciers.The latter indicates that temperature change-induced freeze-thaw action influences landslides in the region.Temperature changes have shown a positive correlation with the number of landslides within elevations,indicating that temperature affects their spatial distribution.Various climate projections suggest that the region will experience further warming,which will increase the likelihood of landslides in the future.Thus,it is crucial to enhance ground observation capabilities and climate datasets to effectively monitor and mitigate landslide risks.

Changes in human settlement environments and their drivers in valley cities located in arid and semi-arid regions:A case study of Lanzhou in Western China

Development of urban human settlement environments(HSEs)is an integral part of promoting high-quality and sustainable regional development and constructing a beautiful China.The city of Lanzhou,located at the geometric center of China,is the only provincial capital traversed by the Yellow River.Given the constraints posed by the valley topography and the need for economic development,the development of this HSE,which is located within an arid region,poses considerable challenges.Evidently,an understanding of the evolution of HSEs and drivers of changes in them contributes to high-quality,sustainable urban development in arid and semi-arid regions.An analytical model was developed using the parameters of relief degree of land surface,human comfort days,the land cover index,nighttime light index,and precipitation.This model was used in combination with population density and the gross domestic product to analyze the spatial distribution of Lanzhou's HSE and its drivers.The results showed that landscapes in Lanzhou underwent significant changes between 2000 and 2022,with an increase in building-up land(+0.946%),cultivated land(+0.134%),and forest land(+0.018%)and a decrease in grassland(-1.10%).There was significant outward expansion of the main urban zone of Lanzhou and of various county towns,with the increase in building-up land being most prominent.During this period,there were significant changes in the periphery of the core urban area and county towns in Lanzhou,with decreases moving from the urban center(the highest value)to the surrounding areas(Yongdeng County had the lowest value).The correlation between the HSE and population density grew stronger in Anning and Chengguan Districts but became weaker in Xigu and Qilihe Districts.Spatiotemporal variations in the HSE were primarily caused by climate change,followed by human activities,and were also influenced by the valley topography.Overall,the spatial distribution of population density and the HSE in Lanzhou demonstrated good consistency under the in-fluence of economic development and urbanization.

Interannual Variability of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index on the Tibetan Plateau and Its Relationship with Climate Change

The Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, or Tibetan Plateau, is a sensitive region for climate change, where the manifestation of global warming is particularly noticeable. The wide climate variability in this region significantly affects the local land ecosystem and could consequently lead to notable vegetation changes. In this paper, the interannual variations of the plateau vegetation are investigated using a 21-year normalized difference vegetation index （NDVI） dataset to quantify the consequences of climate warming for the regional ecosystem and its interactions. The results show that vegetation coverage is best in the eastern and southern plateau regions and deteriorates toward the west and north. On the whole, vegetation activity demonstrates a gradual enhancement in an oscillatory manner during 1982-2002. The temporal variation also exhibits striking regional differences： an increasing trend is most apparent in the west, south, north and southeast, whereas a decreasing trend is present along the southern plateau boundary and in the central-east region. Covariance analysis between the NDVI and surface temperature/precipitation suggests that vegetation change is closely related to climate change. However, the controlling physical processes vary geographically. In the west and east, vegetation variability is found to be driven predominantly by temperature, with the impact of precipitation being of secondary importance. In the central plateau, however, temperature and precipitation factors are equally important in modulating the interannual vegetation variability.

New Vegetation Index and Its Application in Estimating Leaf Area Index of Rice

Leaf area index （LAI） is an important characteristic of land surface vegetation system, and is also a key parameter for the models of global water balancing and carbon circulation. By using the reflectance values of Landsat-5 blue, green and red channels simulated from rice reflectance spectrum, the sensitivities of the bands to LAI were analyzed, and the response and capability to estimate LAI of various NDVIs （normalized difference vegetation indices）, which were established by substituting the red band of general NDVI with all possible combinations of red, green and blue bands, were assessed. Finally, the conclusion was tested by rice data at different conditions. The sensitivities of red, green and blue bands to LAI were different under various conditions. When LAI was less than 3, red and blue bands were more sensitive to LAI. Though green band in the circumstances was less sensitive to LAI than red and blue bands, it was sensitive to LAI in a wider range. When the vegetation indices were constituted by all kinds of combinations of red, green and blue bands, the premise for making the sensitivity of these vegetation indices to LAI be meaningful was that the value of one of the combinations was greater than 0.024, i.e. visible reflectance （VIS）〉0.024. Otherwise, the vegetation indices would be saturated, resulting in lower estimation accuracy of LAI. Comparison on the capabilities of the vegetation indices derived from all kinds of combinations of red, green and blue bands to LAI estimation showed that GNDVI （Green NDVI） and GBNDVI （Green-Blue NDVI） had the best relations with LAI. The capabilities of GNDVI and GBNDVI to LAI estimation were tested under different circumstances, and the same result was acquired. It suggested that GNDVI and GBNDVI performed better to predict LAI than the conventional NDVI.

Common Spectral Bands and Optimum Vegetation Indices for Monitoring Leaf Nitrogen Accumulation in Rice and Wheat

Real-time monitoring of nitrogen status in rice and wheat plant is of significant importance for nitrogen diagnosis, fertilization recommendation, and productivity prediction. With 11 field experiments involving different cultivars, nitrogen rates, and water regimes, time-course measurements were taken of canopy hyperspeetral reflectance between 350-2 500 nm and leaf nitrogen accumulation （LNA） in rice and wheat. A new spectral analysis method through the consideration of characteristics of canopy components and plant growth status varied with phenological growth stages was designed to explore the common central bands in rice and wheat. Comprehensive analyses were made on the quantitative relationships of LNA to soil adjusted vegetation index （SAVI） and ratio vegetation index （RVI） composed of any two bands between 350-2 500 nm in rice and wheat. The results showed that the ranges of indicative spectral reflectance were largely located in 770-913 and 729-742 nm in both rice and wheat. The optimum spectral vegetation index for estimating LNA was SAVI （R822, R738） during the early-mid period （from jointing to booting）, and it was RVI （Rs22, R73s） during the mid-late period （from heading to filling） with the common central bands of 822 and 738 nm in rice and wheat. Comparison of the present spectral vegetation indices with previously reported vegetation indices gave a satisfactory performance in estimating LNA. It is concluded that the spectral bands of 822 and 738 nm can be used as common reflectance indicators for monitoring leaf nitrogen accumulation in rice and wheat.