Spatial Heterogeneity of Embedded Water Consumption from the Perspective of Virtual Water Surplus and Deficit in the Yellow River Basin,China

Virtual water trade(VWT)provides a new perspective for alleviating water crisis and has thus attracted widespread attention.However,the heterogeneity of virtual water trade inside and outside the river basin and its influencing factors remains further study.In this study,for better investigating the pattern and heterogeneity of virtual water trade inside and outside provincial regions along the Yellow River Basin in 2015 using the input-output model(MRIO),we proposed two new concepts,i.e.,virtual water surplus and virtual water deficit,and then used the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index(LMDI)model to identify the inherent mechanism of the imbalance of virtual water trade between provincial regions along the Yellow River Basin and the other four regions in China.The results show that:1)in provincial regions along the Yellow River Basin,the less developed the economy was,the larger the contribution of the agricultural sector in virtual water trade,while the smaller the contribution of the industrial sector.2)Due to the large output of agricultural products,the upstream and midstream provincial regions of the Yellow River Basin had a virtual water surplus,with a net outflow of virtual water of 2.7×10^(8) m^(3) and 0.9×10^(8) m^(3),respectively.3)provincial regions along the Yellow River Basin were in a virtual water deficit with the rest of China,and the decisive factor was the active degree of trade with the outside.This study would be beneficial to illuminate the trade-related water use issues in provincial regions along the Yellow River Basin,which has farreaching practical signific-ance for alleviating water scarcity.

Virtual Water Trade and Food Security for Iraq

Iraq depends on its water resources from the water of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and their tributaries. Now, the flow of these rivers is decreasing, and Iraq is experiencing a water shortage problem. The situation is expected to be graver in the future if no action is considered. It is expected that the population will be about 70 million in 2050 and about 90 million in 2070. In such a case, thus, the quantities of water available in the future will not be sufficient to produce most of the requirements of food security, whether that be from agricultural or animal products. To overcome this problem, water management planning should be based on scientific background to overcome the present and expected problems. One of the main factors to be considered should be based on scientific studies of the virtual water footprint of different food crops to provide the largest possible amount of virtual water and avoid the acute shortage of its national water from surface and ground irrigation water (blue water) and rainwater (green water), in addition to working hard to provide the largest possible amount of desalinated water and refined sewage (gray water). In addition, any strategic plan for sustainable development in the country must be comprehensive so that it is not satisfied with improving the situation in the field of food security related to water security, but rather among its other elements is community development that directly affects food security, including setting policies to reduce consumption by reducing the steady increase in population where the population rate is 2.97% now. Collective awareness and guidance programs in all the fields of water and food security are very important to be adopted, so that everyone knows that the issue of food security and what derives from it are an existential issue related to the survival of Iraq as a state and people. In this research, facts are stated so that action is to be considered to minimize the water shortage problem. The new strategic water resources management plan is to be adopted that considers existing and future expected problems.

Areal differentiation of virtual water for agricultural products and its effect on regional agricultural structure adjustment in China: 1995-2007

With a vast territory, the space-time distribution of water resources is uneven in China. There is a great dif ference in natural conditions and farmland management of agricuttural production in different regions. The areal differentiation of agricultural products virtual water is obvious. Comparison with the agricultural products virtual water from 1995 to 2007 in China shows an increase in the first ten vears and a little decrease in recent years. There has been a tendency of increase all the time in Northeast and Northwest. but a decrease after an increase firstly in other regions. The virtual water offood crops is the maximum which accounts for more than 70% in China. and that of vegetables is in a fast growth. The proportion of agricultural products virtual water to the total water resources in each region has a large difference, showing the imbalance of agricultural water in different regions, which accounts for 50%-90% in Northeast, and 125%-185% in North China. Under the guidance of virtual water strategy, based on the differences of resource endowment, each region should adjust agricultural structure, decide production by water, and select water suitable crops. In water-rich region, agricultural produets of high water consumption should be planted appropriately, which will make full use of the abundant local water resources. In water-shortage region the crop production of high water consumption and low efficiency should be depressed, and that of low water consumption and high efficiency should be supported and increased. It will achieve reasonable disposition of water resources, promote ecological restoration and environmental protection, as welt as ensure food security.

Efficiency,Equity and Effect:a case study on virtual water consumption characteristics

Scarcity of water is the key factor restricting the growth of social economy.The virtual water theory provides a new way to solve the problem of water scarcity.For this paper,we have calculated the virtual water consumption of each household,grouped by income,of Gansu province for 1992-2005.Then we advanced the indicator of virtual water with per-unit-of-consumption expenditure to analyze the efficiency of virtual water consumption.Additionally,we recurred to the diversity theory advanced by Ulanowicz,which is broadly employed by ecologists and biologists,to analyze the characteristics of virtual water consumption.As a result,the virtual water consumption of each group decreased yearly from 1992 to 2005,on the whole;decreasing proceeded slower during the period of 1992-1997 than during 1998-2005.Per-unit-consumption expenditure of virtual water for each group represents the same characteristics,on the whole,as virtual water consumption.The largest variation of this indicator exists in the group of the lowest income,which ranges from 1.58 to 0.18 m3/Yuan.yr;whereas the least exists in the highest income group,which is 0.58 to 0.07 m3/Yuan.yr.The virtual diversity indicator increased year by year,and the change of this indicator in 1992-1997 was more obvious than in 1998-2005.Finally,from this study we find that,in view of virtual water,we can save water by means of changing consumption patterns and increasing consumption diversity,but without degrading the quality of living and reducing the demands of living.When the problem of water scarcity becomes more and more serious in Gansu of China,this suggestion becomes more and more important.The consumption,the role of guiding production produce,is very important.An unsustainable consumption pattern is the main factor causing the deterioration of the world environment,especially in a developing country.The sustainable consumption is the only way to develop human beings and achieve the economical sustainable economics.

Regional Virtual Water Trade Strategy in Drought Area in China

[Objective]The aim was to analyze the virtual water trade in drought area in China.[Method]Taking agricultural production which was related to water resources as study object and by dint of opportunity cost and comparative advantage theory,water resources have been included into a series of state macro-objective models,such as economic growth,crops safety,and increase of people’s well-fare.Virtual water resource strategy was verified effectively and relevant suggestions on virtual water trade in the drought areas in China were proposed.[Result]Virtual water strategy can be implemented in places where water resource was limited so as to get low-water-demand products and change products with humid areas.But the premise was that the production technology of watery product in humid area was higher than the limited-water area,so that there can be adequate impetus to involve into virtual water strategy program and enhance each other’s benefits through commerce and ease water resources shortage and ecological destruction problem and stimulated economic development.[Conclusion] The study provided scientific basis to solve the water shortage problem in China.

Sustainability and virtual water:The lessons of history

This article aims to show that virtual water has historically been an adaptation strategy that enabled some arid regions to develop a prosperous economy without putting pressure on their scarce water resources.Virtual water is referred to as the total amount of water that is consumed to produce goods and services.As an example,in arid central Iran,the deficiency in agricultural revenues was offset by more investment in local industries that enjoyed a perennial capacity to employ more workers.The revenues of local industries weaned the population from irrigated agriculture,since most of their raw materials and also food stuff were imported from other regions,bringing a remarkable amount of virtual water.This virtual water not only sustained the region’s inhabitants,but also set the stage for a powerful polity in the face of a rapid population growth between the 13th and 15th centuries AD.The resultant surplus products entailed a vast and safe network of roads,provided by both entrepreneurs and government.Therefore,it became possible to import more feedstock such as cocoons from water-abundant regions and then export silk textiles with considerable value-added.This article concludes that a similar model of virtual water can remedy the ongoing water crisis in central Iran,where groundwater reserves are overexploited,and many rural and urban centers are teetering on the edge of socio-ecological collapse.History holds an urgent lesson on sustainability for our today’s policy that stubbornly peruses agriculture and other high-water-demand sectors in an arid region whose development has always been dependent on virtual water.

Evaluation on Water Resources and Determining the Values of Exported and Imported Virtual Water in Hashtgerd Region

The concept of virtual water in recent years has been proposed with the world’s water resource consumption management approach. Hashtgerd study area is one of 609 study areas of the country that is located entirely in Alborz Province. Average annual rainfall in this region was about 200 to 340 mm and the average agricultural production per year was more than one million tons and had more than 16 million cubic meters surplus recovery from underground water resources. The aim of this study is to evaluate resources and amounts of virtual water in the agricultural sector of the study area and its impact on the area water resources balance and ultimately provide solutions to reduce water consumption by the agricultural sector. The most important exported water products in Hashtgerd area in order of importance are peaches and nectarines (33% of water exports), plums (15% of water exports), vegetables (5.14 percent of water exports), cherry (4.7% of water exports) and wheat (6.5 percent of water exports). Virtual water trade balance of agricultural and horticultural products in the digital range is equal to 260+ million cubic meters. Density of agricultural lands can be mentioned as the main reasons for positive balance of virtual water trade in this area.

The Strategic Importance of Cereal Virtual Water in Algeria： Report and Perspectives

In order to quantify the virtual water part which is contained in the imported cereals, compared with the hydraulic potentialities which are annually mobilised through the national territory, and on the basis of the agricultural statistics, we have determined the average quantities of the imported cereals per year in order to determine the virtual water volume that these cereals bind. The water needs of the cereals which are produced in Algeria have been calculated by the Cropwat software, in order to define the equivalent quantities of water in their production on the national scale. The obtained results confirm the importance of the annually imported virtual water, through the imported cereals, comparing with the national hydraulic potentialities. Our study shows also that in spite of the strategic importance of the virtual water in the imported cereals, a diminution has to take place, on the average term, by an improvement of the use efficiency of the precipitations （green virtual water） using the best mastery of the technical itinerary in general, and also the efficient use of precipitations in particular.

Jordanian Horticultural Export Competitiveness from Water Perspective

The main objective of this paper is to analyze the relationships between the productive process and the commercial trade with water resources used by them. For that the goal is to find out, by means of the estimation of water embodied in the exported crops which have the highest export competitiveness and lower water consumption. The finding contradicts not only the comparative advantages theory but also the resources sustainability logic. This conclusion is derived from the great exports of water via tomatoes and low profitable vegetables from producers＇ perspective but not economical from social perspectives as shown in domestic resource coefficient. The diversion between financial and economic profitability is due to heavily irrigation water subsidy. The results confirm that Jordan utilizes large amounts of water in its exports, and in turn, it does not export goods with low water requirements. The potential saving would be very significant and agricultural sector need to modify the use of water to a great extent in order to reach significant water savings and an environmental sustainability. Jordan has to implement policies that reduced, or even abandoned, the export and the production of water-intensive crops. Therefore, they have to be replaced with either imports or crops that optimize the water resources.

An Integrated Framework for Regional Assessment of Water, Energy, and Nutrients from Food Loss of Selected Crops in the Lower Fraser Valley, Canada

Although there is no global shortage of food or water, food security has not been achieved, as human activity has turned these vital resources into “waste”. Wasted food not only loses valuable water resources but embedded calories of human energy and nutrients for healthy human populations. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, in addressing these concerns, focuses on a global scale largely on an economic estimate of individual components of energy or water or nutrient loss. It is suggested that more information is required through local or regional assessments to provide better estimates, incorporating regional factors of the losses along the food supply chain. To address this suggestion, this study focused on an intensive agricultural and rapidly urbanizing region of Canada, the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia. Seven selected crops, including annual crops such as green peas, sweet corn and potato, and perennial crops that included three berry crops were assessed for their water, both constituent and virtual, as well as embedded energy, protein, and Vitamin C. Annual virtual water losses were higher for sprinkler than drip irrigation, ranging from 82 × 106 kg of water for strawberry to 7570 × 106 kg for blueberry. These high virtual water losses estimated along the food chain confirm the significance of food loss impacts on local water resources. Estimates of losses of food in kg were highest at the consumer level along the food chain and it was estimated that wasted food from the seven crops selected would have supplied the protein and caloric energy of over 33,000 men per year and Vitamin C of about 240,000 men per year. This assessment increases the awareness of food loss impacts from a regional perspective and provides a framework for future research on both environmental and nutritional implications of wasted food.

Integrated Water Management for Aflaj System in Oman——Different Approach

The study addressed the question about modernization of Aflaj＇s administration, and pointed out the pros and cons of both traditional and modern methods. The traditional management seems powerless and is not eligible to follow the social and economic development, however this development even begins to reflect negatively on the administration of Aflaj. The traditional management system of Falaj by rural communities is still an independent management of the state. However, regardless the efficiency of the traditional management system in the past, this traditional management can not take in consideration waters development projects in their region, considering that the concept of local administration is differing with the concept of integrated water management. Therefore, the questions revolve around the future of traditional administration and the role of modern administration of the Aflaj water system to maximize the use of water. Hence, the need for the use of modern methods of the management of Falaj has become a leading supplier key demand to keep up with challenges. This method begins in the basic data onto the role and importance of water in the area of Falaj and pass through the definition of the region Falaj, wondering about an administrative boundary and the importance of the basin of Falaj and how is developing the database, like data network density of rainwater. The importance here is to choose the appropriate and required methods of the development and optimization of Falaj system management, as well as the scientific levels required by specialists, technicians and observers to Falaj administration. Otherwise, it is difficult, in the 21st century, to defme the priorities of geographical surroundings and study the future of Aflaj.

Water Footprint in a Basket of Exportable Agricultural Products of San Juan Province

This paper calculates the water footprint(WF)and virtual water(VW)for a basket of exportable agricultural products of San Juan province.This basket includes:onion,white garlic and grapes for raisins.The VW of these three productions is calculated and the consumption is evaluated in relation to the theoretical water reservoir capacity of the province.It is compared with results of other jobs.The methodology used is based on the WF assessment manual and on Food and Agriculture Organization’s(FAO’s)CROPWAT 8.0 model to identify the crops’water requirements and on the CIMWAT 2.0 climate database.Finally,recommendations are made for a more efficient use of water for agricultural production.

Water, Energy and Nutrient Losses from Food Wastage of Selected Crops in Three Agro-Climatic Zones in British Columbia, Canada

Food waste is a growing global concern. Data on the factors and magnitude are largely global estimates, thus local studies aid in providing information on the impacts of food waste. Three important agro-climatic zones in British Columbia and nine common crops, both annual and perennial, were selected to evaluate the environmental and nutritional implications of local food waste. Using Canadian estimates of total food waste, the constituent water, caloric content, protein, vitamin C, phosphorus and potassium wasted by each crop were estimated. Regionally, the total production and losses were the highest in the Lower Fraser Valley which had high production of potatoes and blueberries, followed by the Okanagan, with grapes and apples, and Vancouver Island, with potatoes. Virtual water was estimated by the BC Agriculture Water Calculator and used to assess the soil and climatic factors impacting the local water demand. Although soil texture seemed to influence water demand, the agro-climatic zone was the main factor controlling the water demand and the corresponding amount of water wasted. Dry agro-climatic zones had annual virtual water up to two times higher for the same crop and soil texture. Lower water demand crops, finer soils and more efficient irrigation systems were more congruent with water stress scenarios. Total losses for each region were based on conservative estimates and would have supplied the caloric energy and protein for over 40,000 adults, and vitamin C for over 300,000 adults for one year. Additionally, the total N, P and K wasted accounted for up to 32, 2 and 13 kg/ha respectively for common fertilizers used in British Columbia. This study confirmed the significance of food waste impacts on local water demand, human nutrition and soil management based on regional data for representative crops.

云南省滇中地区虚拟水贸易初步研究

云南省滇中地区因缺水,已严重影响了当地的社会经济发展和河湖的生态环境。为解决该地区缺水问题,采用建立虚拟水帐户的方式,定量评价云南省滇中地区虚拟水贸易流量格局。通过计算农作物、动物产品虚拟水含量和该地区虚拟水贸易量,发现消耗水资源最多的是粮食作物,因此,建议调整该地区种植结构,减少水稻大宗农产品生产规模,从水资源富余地区进口粮食,缓解自身水资源紧缺压力,实现区域水资源可持续利用及生态系统和良性循环。

Analysis of Water Resources Carrying Capacity of the “Belt and Road” Initiative Countries based on Virtual Water Theory

Most countries along the route of the"Belt and Road"initiative are faced with a shortage of water resources.However,successful implementation of the initiative depends on water availability to support economic and social development.We designed a water resources carrying capacity evaluation index system,assigned grades and weights to each evaluation index and calculated a water resources carrying index for the 65 countries along the route.We used virtual water theory to analyze China's net virtual water import from key bulk agricultural products through international trade.For more than half of the countries along the route,their water resources will be unable to support the economic development that will be necessary for fulfilling the goals of the Initiative.As a country with insufficient water resources carrying capacity,China is a net virtual water importer in the virtual water trade.This virtual water trade can improve China's water resources support capacity,and ensure China's water and food security for the future.

Changes in agricultural virtual water in Central Asia,1992-2016

In recent years,flows of many rivers and lakes have become reduced in arid and semi-arid regions around the world.The most typical examples of this phenomenon occur in Central Asia,and the reduction of the Aral Sea area is closely related to agricultural water use.However,due to a lack of continuous data in Central Asia spanning many years,"virtual water"is used to evaluate changes in agricultural water use.Based on virtual water theory,325 kinds of agricultural products in eight categories are selected as the research object,and changes in virtual water are calculated for Central Asia from 1992 to 2016.Results indicate that:(1)The average annual net export of agricultural virtual water(TVWNE)in Central Asia is about 9 billion m3,concentrated in Kazakhstan,whose annual TVWNE reaches 8.1 billion m3.(2)Since 2007,the TVWNE in Central Asia has dropped significantly,with a drop rate of 86%,while the total volume of agricultural virtual water has gradually increased since 1998.(3)The upstream and downstream countries in Central Asia have different characteristics in the change of virtual water quantity.

Agricultural water conservation in China:plastic mulch and traditional irrigation

Plastic mulch is commonly used with micro-irrigation in developed countries;however,Chinese farmers use plastic mulch on a vast scale independent of micro-irrigation.For the past three decades,China’s land area in plastic mulch has exceeded the world’s total land area in micro-irrigation.We report results from the water-scarce region of Minqin County,where 87%of Chinese farmers interviewed responded that they use plastic mulch to conserve water and 53%to increase yields.Survey results indicated the desire to conserve water through the use of plastic mulch to be statistically equivalent to the desire to increase yields.Responses to interviews and surveys indicate that farmers perceive water savings of 24-26%when plastic mulch is used.Interview and survey responses suggest farming families are shifting to purchasing wheat from outside the region;a potential import of"virtual water"into this water-scarce region.

Local-scale systems input-output analysis of embodied water for the Beijing economy in 2007

Using the most detailed and recent statistics available for Beijing, a local-scale embodiment analysis on water use was conducted, employing a systems input- output analysis that integrates economic systems with natural resources data. Systems analysis for water research at the local scale is a crucial part of a systems oriented water accounting framework. To our knowledge, however, related works have not been thoroughly conducted. In this paper, a set of embodied water intensity inventory data is presented, which is applicable to both intermediate input and final demand. Also, detailed analyses of Beijing＇s embodied water use accounting are presented. The embodied water intensity of the. Water Production and Supply Industry Sector turns out to be the highest among the 42 sectors. For water embodied in final demand, the total amount is 3.48 km3, of which the water embodied in urban household consumption makes up nearly a half proportion. As a net virtual water importer, Beijing＇s water embodied in commodity trade totals 5.84× 10^8m3. As a result, in addition to improvements in technology and water use efficiency, adjustments in industrial structure and trade policies are algo of significant importance to water conservation efforts.