Highway Roadway Stability Influenced by Warm Permafrost and Seasonal Frost Action:A Case Study from Glennallen,Alaska,USA

Ground temperatures from four of the seven extensively studied highway cross-sections near Gulkana/Glennallen,Alaska during 1954;962,were chosen to better understand the impacts of highway construction on warm permafrost.Both the thawing of permafrost and seasonal frost action impacted on road surface stability for about 6 years until the maximum summer thaw reached about 3 m in depth.Seasonal frost action caused most of the ensuing stability problems.Unusually warm summers and the lengths of time required to re-freeze the active layer were far more important than the average annual air temperatures in determining the temperatures of the underlying shallow permafrost,or the development of taliks.The hypothesized climate warming would slightly and gradually deepen the active layer and the developed under-lying talik,but its effect would be obscured by unusually warm summers,by warmer than usual winters,and by the vari-able lengths of time of the zero curtains.At least one period of climate mini-cooling in the deeper permafrost during the early 20th century was noted.

Dynamic response of wind turbine towers in warm permafrost

Wind is a great source of renewable energy in western Alaska.Consistent winds blow across the barren tundra underlain by warm permafrost in the winter season,when the energy demand is the highest.Foundation engineering in warm permafrost has always been a challenge in wind energy development.Degrading warm permafrost poses engineering issues to design,construction,and operation of wind turbines.This paper describes the foundation design of a wind turbine built in western Alaska.It presents a system for response monitoring and load assessment,and data collected from September 2013 to March 2014.The dynamic properties are assessed based on the monitoring data,and seasonal changes in the dynamic properties of the turbine tower-foundation system and likely resonance between the spinning blades and the tower structure are discussed.These analyses of a wind turbine in warm permafrost are valuable for designing or retrofitting of foundations in warm permafrost.

Degradation of warm permafrost and talik formation on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in 2006-2021

Permafrost is degrading globally,particularly those with low thermal stability on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,owing to climate change.However,the inadequacy of direct research on permafrost degradation based on in-situ monitoring limits the prediction of permafrost degradation and engineering practices.This study explored the processes and modes of permafrost degradation into talik by analyzing ground temperature data from five points in the hinterland of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau from 2006 to 2021.The results showed that the degradation of the warm permafrost layer with a geothermal gradient of zero occurred simultaneously in the top and bottom directions.The rate of permafrost degradation from the top down and bottom up increase during the degradation process,but the increase of the former is more drastic after the formation of thawed interlayer.Additionally,the construction of the Qinghai-Tibet Railway changed the degradation modes of the permafrost in adjacent natural sites through horizontal heat transfer,particularly after through talik formation under the embankment.The findings suggest that taking countermeasures before or immediately after forming thawed interlayer is more effective.When evaluating the thermal impact of projects in warm permafrost regions,special attention should be given to the horizontal heat transfer process that may result from the formation of a through talik.

Full-scale site evaluation of ventilation expressway embankments underlain by warm permafrost along the Gonghe−Yushu Expressway

Ventilation embankments,including those with forced ventilation,natural ventilation,and combination of these,were adopted for the construction of the Gonghe−Yushu Expressway in warm permafrost areas.To evaluate the actual thermal performance of ventilation embankment in the Qinghai−Tibet Plateau,four types of ventilation embankments were selected as objects,and their long-term thermal characteristics were analyzed based on monitoring data.It was found that:1)under the strong scale effect of a wide embankment,the crushed-rock embankment(CRE)was warming up and the permafrost table was declining year by year.Meanwhile,the combined ventilated slab and CRE and ventilated ducts embankment can effectively decrease the ground temperature and raise permafrost table in the year with a colder winter;2)transverse temperature difference caused by the shady–sunny slope effect existed in all the four embankments.However,it was weakened by the combined ventilated slab and CRE and the ventilated ducts embankment due to their stronger cooling effect;and 3)the pre-existing embankment had a remarkable thermal disturbance to the adjacent newly-built embankment,so a reasonable embankment spacing should be considered in practical engineering.These findings would provide a reference for construction of expressway embankments in permafrost regions.

Field observations of the thermal stability of permafrost under buildings with an underfloor open ventilation space and pile foundations in warm permafrost at high altitudes

Pile foundations combined with ventilation spaces under floors are the most common method in buildings over permafrost.The safety and stability of buildings are closely related to the temperature of permafrost.However,there are limitations of understanding on this method in the high-altitude,warm(>−1℃)permafrost areas on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau.In this study,the thermal stability of permafrost foundation soils under buildings with an underfloor open ventilation space and pile foundations in warm permafrost at high altitudes was studied through field observations of ground and air temperatures,wind speed,net radiation from 2017 to 2021.The results indicated that the open ventilation space exerted an effective cooling effect on the underlying permafrost and pile foundations from March to October,while a thermal insulation effect was observed from November to February of the following year,but overall,the cooling effect dominated;the cooling effect of open ventilation spaces differed spatially.The permafrost temperature on the south-facing side was higher than that on the north-facing side,and those on the east and west sides were higher than that directly under the open ventilation space of the building.This study also demonstrated that radiation shielded by the building was a main factor of the cooling effect of open ventilation spaces,and the cooling effect of open ventilation spaces could accelerate the back-freezing of the cast-in-place(CIP)pile foundations.This structure could effectively maintain the frozen state of the underlying warm permafrost at high elevations on the interior Qinghai–Tibet Plateau.

Permafrost warming along the Mo'he-Jiagedaqi section of the China-Russia crude oil pipeline

The permafrost along the China-Russia Crude Oil Pipeline(CRCOP) is degrading since the pipeline operation in 2011. Heat dissipated from the pipeline, climate warming and anthropogenic activities leads to permafrost warming. The processes of permafrost warming along the CRCOP were studied based on the monitoring of air and soil temperatures, and electrical resistivity tomography(ERT) surveys. Results show that:(1) the mean annual air temperature(MAAT) in permafrost regions along the CRCOP increased with a rate of 0.21°C/10a–0.40°C/10 a during the past five decades;(2) the mean annual ground temperature(MAGT, at-15 m depth) of undisturbed permafrost increased by 0.2°C and the natural permafrost table remained unchanged due to the zero-curtain effect;(3) permafrost surrounding the uninsulated pipeline right-of-way warmed significantly compared with that in a natural site. During 2012–2017, the MAGT and the artificial permafrost table, 2 m away from the pipeline centerline, increased at rates of 0.063°C/a and 1.0 m/a. The thaw bulb developed around the pipe and exhibits a faster lateral expansion;(4) 80-mm-thick insulation could reduce the heat exchange between the pipeline and underlying permafrost and then keep the permafrost and pipe stable. The MAGT and the artificial permafrost table, 4.8 m away from the center line of the pipeline, increased by 0.3°C/a and 0.43 m/a, respectively. Due to the heat disturbance caused by warm oil, the degradation of wetland, controlled burn each autumn and climate warming, the permafrost extent reduced and warmed significantly along the CRCOP route. Field observations provide basic data to clarify the interactions between CRCOP and permafrost degradation and environmental effects in the context of climate change.

Discussion on possibilities of taking ground ice in permafrost as water sources on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau during climate warming

Large amounts of ground ice are born with permafrost on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.Degradation of permafrost resulted from the climate warming will inevitably lead to melting of ground ice.The water released from the melting ground ice enters hydrologic cycles at various levels,and changes regional hydrologic regimes to various degrees.Due to difficulties in monitoring the perma-frost-degradation-release-water process,direct and reliable evidence is few.The accumulative effect of releasing water,however,is remarkable in the macro-scale hydrologic process.On the basis of the monitoring results of water-levels changes in some lakes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,and combined with the previous results of the hydrologic changing trends at the regional scale,the authors preliminarily discussed the possibilities of the degrading permafrost on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau as a potential water source during climate warming.

Characteristics of permafrost degradation in Northeast China and its ecological effects: A review

Latitudinal permafrost in Northern Northeast(NNE)China is located in the southern margin of the Eurasian continent,and is very sensitive to climatic and environmental change.Numerical simulations indicate that air temperature in the permafrost regions of Northeast China has been on the rise since the 1950s,and will keep rising in the 21st century,leading to extensive degradation of permafrost.Permafrost degradation in NNE China has its own characteristics,such as northward shifts in the shape of a"W"for the permafrost southern boundary(SLP),discontinuous permafrost degradation into islandlike frozen soil,and gradually disappearing island permafrost.Permafrost degradation leads to deterioration of the ecological environment in cold regions.As a result,the belt of larch forests dominated by Larix gmelinii has shifted northwards and wetland areas with symbiotic relationships with permafrost have decreased significantly.With rapid retreat and thinning of permafrost and vegetation change,the CO2 and CH4 flux increases with mean air temperature from continuous to sporadic permafrost areas as a result of activity of methanogen enhancement,positively feeding back to climate warming.This paper reviews the features of permafrost degradation,the effects of permafrost degradation on wetland and forest ecosystem structure and function,and greenhouse gas emissions on latitudinal permafrost in NNE China.We also put forward critical questions about the aforementioned effects,including:(1)establish long-term permafrost observation systems to evaluate the distribution of permafrost and SLP change,in order to study the feedback of permafrost to climate change;(2)carry out research about the effects of permafrost degradation on the wetland ecosystem and the response of Xing'an larch to global change,and predict ecosystem dynamics in permafrost degradation based on long-term field observation;(3)focus intensively on the dynamics of greenhouse gas flux in permafrost degradation of Northeast China and the feedback of greenhouse gas emissions to climate change;(4)quantitative studies on the permafrost carbon feedback and vegetation carbon feedback due to permafrost change to climate multi-impact and estimate the balance of C in permafrost regions in the future.

Application of a concrete thermal pile in cooling the warming permafrost under climate change

Permafrost degradation caused by climate warming is posing a serious threat to the stability of cast-in-place pile foundations in warm permafrost regions.Ambient cold energy can be effectively utilized by two-phase closed thermosyphons(TPCTs)to cool the permafrost.Therefore,we installed TPCTs in a cast-in-place pile foundation to create a unique structure called a thermal pile,which effectively utilizes the TPCTs to regulate ground temperature.And we conducted a case study and numerical simulation to exhibit the cooling performance,and optimize the structure of the thermal pile.The purpose of this study is to promote the application of thermal piles in unstable permafrost regions.Based on the findings,the thermal pile operated for approximately 53%of the entire year and effectively reduced the deep ground temperature at a rate of at least-0.1℃per year.Additionally,it successfully raised the permafrost table that is 0.35 m shallower than the natural ground level.These characteristics prove highly beneficial in mitigating the adverse effects of permafrost degradation and enhancing infrastructure safety.Expanding the length of the condenser section and the diameter of the TPCT in a suitable manner can effectively enhance the cooling capability of the thermal pile and ensure the long-term mechanical stability of the pile foundation even under climate warming.

青藏高原降雨增加和气温升高对多年冻土水热动态贡献研究

在人类活动和全球气候变化驱动下,青藏高原气候整体呈现暖湿化变化趋势,由此引发的多年冻土活动层水热变化对寒区生态环境和寒区工程稳定性产生显著影响。目前,温度升高对多年冻土的影响机制较为明确,但降雨增加、降雨增加与气温升高共同作用下的多年冻土水热响应过程和机制尚不明确。在考虑雨水感热作用的地表能水平衡-冻土水热耦合模型的基础上,对比研究气温升高、降雨增加单一作用及其共同作用对活动层水热影响机制。结果表明:相比气温升高和降雨增加单一作用,暖湿化复合作用导致地表净辐射通量和蒸发潜热通量增长显著,地表感热降低更加明显,雨水感热影响较小,地表土壤热通量呈增加趋势;暖湿化复合作用下温度梯度液态水通量增长显著,基质势梯度液态水通量在浅层增幅也大于单独升温作用,但小于单一降雨增加作用,暖湿化导致暖季土壤含水率增幅小于单独降雨作用;暖湿化作用下活动层热传导通量在冷季增加显著且增幅小于单独升温作用,而液态水对流传热在暖季增加明显且增幅小于单独湿化作用;降雨增加促使土体暖季降温显著,暖湿化与单一气温升高均导致土体在冷季升温效果高于暖季;气温升高1.0℃引起多年冻土上限下移10cm,降雨增加100 mm促使上限抬升8 cm,暖湿化共同作用导致冻土上限下移6 cm;在暖湿化作用下,降雨增加对冻土降温作用较小,气温升高对冻土的升温效应仍占据主导。

不同边界条件对多年冻土上限影响的模型试验研究

在全球气候转暖对多年冻土影响的情景下 ,开展了在多模式下气温升高对冻土上限的影响试验研究 .针对不加抛石遮阳棚、加抛石、加抛石遮阳棚 3种情况 ,地表温度均采取基本温度加 2次不同升温冻融循环 ,每次温控指标逐级提高 0 .5℃ ,即地表温度 3次变化依次按照 - 16 .1～ 5 .8～ - 13.3℃、 - 15 .6～ 6 .3～ - 12 .8℃、 - 15 .1～ 6 .8～ - 12 .3℃进行 .结果表明 ,加抛石及遮阳棚对多年冻土上限有着明显的影响 ,冻土上限的变化与气温基本上呈正相关 。

气候变暖背景下青藏高原多年冻土层中地下冰作为水“源”的可能性探讨

多年冻土中含有大量地下冰,全球气候变暖势必导致多年冻土退化,地下冰融化,部分水分被释放并参与到区域水循环之中,改变了区域水文状况.冻土退化-释水的过程在监测上面临较大困难,无法提供直接证据,但其长期累计的效果在宏观水文过程中表现显著.为此,利用近年来青藏高原部分湖泊水位变化监测以及地区水文情势变化研究成果,探讨了在气候变暖背景下,多年冻土层中的地下冰作为一种潜在水"源"的可能性.结果表明:多年冻土退化较强烈地区,补给源头在多年冻土区的封闭湖泊水位上涨、地下水位上升,排除其它补给量增加的可能性后,多年冻土地下冰很可能是补给水量增加的原因之一.

“冷却路基”方法在青藏铁路上的应用

青藏铁路穿越550 km多年冻土,其中约一半为高温多年冻土,其年平均地温为0^-1℃.青藏铁路是百年大计,必须考虑未来50~100 a的气候变化.在全球变暖的背景下,青藏铁路高温冻土段的建设必须改变单纯依靠热阻(增加路堤高度、采用保温材料等)的消极“保”温方法,而改用“冷却路基”的积极“降”温措施.青藏铁路的建设采用了一整套“冷却路基”的方法:通过遮阳板调控辐射;通过通风管、热管和气冷路堤调控对流;通过“热半导体”材料调控传导;通过这些调控方式的组合,加强冷却效果.这些方法均可有效地降低路基下多年冻土的地温,保证青藏铁路路基的稳定.

东北多年冻土退化及环境效应研究现状与展望

东北多年冻土属中高纬度多年冻土,对气候变化非常敏感。数据模型模拟表明,21世纪东北多年冻土区气温会持续上升,显著的变暖将导致多年冻土退化。东北多年冻土呈现自南向北的区域性退化趋势,多年冻土区南部表现为南界的北移、融区的扩大和多年冻土的消失,而北部表现为多年冻土下限的上移、活动层厚度增大及地温升高等。多年冻土的退化会导致寒区生态环境的恶化,如兴安落叶松占绝对优势的天然林带锐减,林带北移,沼泽湿地萎缩等。随着多年冻土的迅速退缩和变薄,原多年冻土中蕴藏的碳将释放出来,对气候变化产生积极的正反馈,加速变暖,并影响全球碳循环。多年冻土退化导致其热状态失稳而造成寒区基础设施损坏,并且影响冻土微生物、碳循环、寒区生态和水文等,而它们是区域气候变化的重要因子,也将成为未来多年冻土研究的重点。而这些研究都需要长期的基础数据作支撑,因此需要进一步完善冻土参数监测网络,用模型厘清气候变化与多年冻土退化及其环境效应之间的关系。

高温冻土区填土路基的地基融化固结变形分析

针对青藏铁路高温冻土区普通填土路基的融沉变形,基于拉格朗日法描述的大变形固结理论及考虑相变作用的路基传热理论,对高温冻土区不同高度填土路基的温度场和地基融化固结变形进行计算分析,并与现场监测结果进行对比。温度场分析结果表明,高温冻土区4和6m高填土路基在短期内可使冻土上限略微抬升,但下伏多年冻土存在缓慢升温过程,其升温幅度每年约为0.02℃左右;随着气候逐渐变暖,填土路基下冻土上限在后期会逐渐下降,且填土路基高度越小则上限下降量越大,最终在路基下部形成融化盘。融化固结变形分析结果表明,填土路基沉降变形表现出季节性,即暖季沉降变形发展迅速,冷季发展缓慢,发展趋势与现场监测结果吻合良好;在给定的地质条件下,2,4和6m高填土路基在竣工50年后其沉降变形量分别为255.2,470.4和689.7mm,即沉降变形量与其高度呈正比,且高填土路基沉降变形的季节性更显著;填土路基高度和多年冻土的含冰量是影响填土路基沉降变形的主要因素。

高温多年冻土区冻土地基预先融化技术研究现状及展望

在气候变暖背景下,多年冻土退化加剧,高温冻土将会在更大范围出现,保护冻土原则的适用性将受到经济、技术、环保合理性的挑战.在条件适宜高温冻土区,根据建筑结构和基础类型,采用预先融化技术(简称预融技术)处理冻土地基可在经济合理的前提下,保证工程的安全可靠性和长期稳定性.回顾了国内外冻土区预先融化技术的经验,总结和展望了预融技术在工程设计、施工及运行中的三个基本步骤,包括施工前多年冻土的融化、已融土的密实和固结,工程运行期间保持融化和防止冻胀措施的实施.预融技术主要利用蒸汽,热、冷水的对流换热和电流热效应,以及改变地表热状况来融化下伏多年冻土.保持融化的方法主要包括改变地表反射率和地基土的结构,融土保温以及利用主动和被动升温传热装置等(如热管技术).结合中国东北的一些预融技术运用实例,如漠河机场工程等,简要评述了预融技术的应用效果.

高温冻土区新型复合护坡降温机制研究

遮阳板碎石复合护坡是一种集碎石护坡和遮阳板护坡双重效用于一体的新型复合护坡结构,是一种很好的治理高温冻土区块碎石护坡路基病害的补强措施。基于遮阳板和块碎石单个工程措施降温机制的研究,通过对这种新型复合护坡路基的温度场和速度场特征以及降温过程的研究,提出新型复合护坡路基的降温机制。研究发现,封闭新型复合护坡的主要降温机制是:复合护坡中遮阳板有遮阳和挡风雪作用,碎石层有"热半导体"效应和"热屏蔽效应"(屏蔽遮阳板的二次辐射);开放新型复合护坡的主要降温机制是:遮阳板有遮阳、挡风雪作用,碎石护坡有"热屏蔽效应"(屏蔽热风和二次辐射)和"烟囱效应",遮阳板和碎石护坡组合的通道有"虹吸效应"、"狭管效应"和"烟囱效应"。研究成果完善和深化了新型复合护坡路基研究基础,而且对遮阳板和块碎石结构在青藏铁路或青藏公路中的应用提供科学依据和技术支撑。

未来气候变暖情形下青藏高原多年冻土分布初探

基于未来温室气体中等排放情景下气候模式给出的气候预测结果的高分辨率降尺度分析结果,运用两种方法(年均温法和高程模型法)模拟了1980—1999,2030—2049和2080—2099年3个时段青藏高原多年冻土分布。结果表明,以年均地温-1℃作为多年冻土划分依据的年均温法模拟的目前(1980—1999年)高原多年冻土面积为127.99万km2,与世界数据中心给出的青藏高原现代多年冻土面积为129.12万km2的估算接近(误差率仅为0.86%);到本世纪中期(2030—2049年),高原多年冻土面积减少为87.26万km2,退化率达到31.82%;而到本世纪末(2080—2099年),高原多年冻土面积只有69.25万km2,较目前将退化45.89%。不同高度带的对比分析还发现,与高原及其邻近地区年均气温的升高一般随海拔高度而增加的趋势相反,未来高原多年冻土的退化率将随着海拔高度增加而降低。在全球变暖过程中的冻土退化,特别是高原东南部冻土向西北部的逐步退缩,对高原冻土区工程稳定性的影响应引起我们的足够重视。

青海高原中、东部多年冻土及寒区环境退化

近年来,随着全球气候变暖和人类社会经济活动的增强,处于季节冻土向片状连续多年冻土过渡区的青海高原中、东部多年冻土退化显著.巴颜喀拉山南坡清水河地区岛状冻土分布南界向北萎缩5km;清水河、黄河沿、星星海南岸、黑河沿岸、花石峡等岛状冻土和不连续多年冻土出现融化夹层和不衔接多年冻土,有些地区冻土岛和深埋藏多年冻土消失,多年冻土上限下降、季节冻结深度变浅;片状连续多年冻土地温升高、冻土厚度减薄.1991—2010年巴颜喀拉山南北坡不连续多年冻土分布下界分别上升90m和100m,1995—2010年布青山南北坡不连续多年冻土分布下界分别上升80m和50m.造成冻土退化的主要原因为气候变暖,使得地表年均温度由负变正,冻结期缩短,融化期延长,冻/融指数比缩小.伴随着冻土退化,高寒环境也显著退化,地下水位下降,植被覆盖度降低,高寒沼泽湿地和河湖萎缩,土地荒漠化和沙漠化造成了地表覆被条件改变.

气候变暖背景下拟建青藏高速公路沿线典型区段多年冻土未来50年退化特征

选取青藏高速公路沿线4个典型区段,采用数值预测方法,预测4种气候变暖情景下未来50年多年冻土的退化特征。结果表明:初始多年冻土地温越低,对气候变暖的敏感性越弱;随着初始多年冻土地温的升高,多年冻土对气候变化的主要响应方式由年平均地温升高向上限下降、下限抬升转变。A2情景下冻土退化最严重,线性情景和B1情景多年冻土退化较为温和。到2064年时,A2情景下安多冻土厚度减薄7.94m,风火山年平均地温升高1.34℃。未来青藏高原低温多年冻土向高温多年冻土转变,冻土厚度减薄,活动层厚度增加,在线位选择和结构设计中应引起充分的重视。