Simple electrode assembly engineering:Toward a multifunctional lead-acid battery

Electrochemical energy storage is a promising technology for the integration of renewable energy.Lead-acid battery is perhaps among the most successful commercialized systems ever since thanks to its excellent cost-effectiveness and safety records.Despite of 165 years of development,the low energy density as well as the coupled power and energy density scaling restrain its wider application in real life.To address this challenge,we optimized the configuration of conventional Pb-acid battery to integrate two gas diffusion electrodes.The novel device can work as a Pb-air battery using ambient air,showing a peak power density of 183 mW cm^(−2),which was comparable with other state-of-the-art metal-O_(2)batteries.It can also behave as a fuel cell,simultaneously converting H_(2)and air into electricity with a peak power density of 75 mW cm^(−2).Importantly,this device showed little performance degradation after 35 h of the longevity test.Our work shows the exciting potential of lead battery technology and demonstrates the importance of battery architecture optimization toward improved energy storage capacity.

Upcycling of phosphogypsum waste for efficient zinc-ion batteries

Zinc metal is a promising anode material for next-generation aqueous batteries,but its practical application is limited by the formation of zinc dendrite.To prevent zinc dendrite growth,various Zn^(2+)-conducting but water-isolating solid-electrolyte interphase(SEI)films have been developed,however,the required high-purity chemical materials are extremely expensive.In this work,phosphogypsum(PG),an industrial byproduct produced from the phosphoric acid industry,is employed as a multifunctional protective layer to navigate uniform zinc deposition.Theoretical and experimental results demonstrate that PG-derived CaSO_(4)2H_(2)O can act as an artificial SEI layer to provide fast channels for Zn^(2+)transport.Moreover,CaSO_(4)2H_(2)O could release calcium ions(Ca^(2+))due to its relatively high Kspvalue,which have a higher binding energy than that of Zn^(2+)on the Zn surface,thus preferentially adsorbing to the tips of the protuberances to force zinc ions to nucleate at inert region.As a result,the Zn@PG anode achieves a high Coulombic efficiency of 99.5%during 500 cycles and long-time stability over 1000 hours at 1 m A cm^(-2).Our findings will not only construct a low-cost artificial SEI film for practical metal batteries,but also achieve a high-value utilization of phosphogypsum waste.

Separation of cadmium and nickel from waste Ni-Cd batteries

To separate the cadmium and nickel resources in waste Ni-Cd batteries, aself-designed vacuum distillation recycling system was studied under laboratory conditions. Theeffects of system temperature, operating pressure, and time on the separation of Ni and Cd werestudied respectively. The mechanism of vacuum thermal recycling was also discussed. Results showthat vacuum distillation is a very effective separation method for waste Ni-Cd batteries. At aconstant pressure, the increase of temperature can improve the separating efficiency of Cd. When thetemperature is 1 173 K, cadmium can evaporate completely from the samples during 3 h at 10 Pa. Thereduction of pressure in a certain range is effective to the separating of Cd from Ni-Cd batteriesby vacuum distillation.

Recycling waste crystalline-silicon solar cells: Application as high performance Si-based anode materials for lithium-ion batteries

Recycling useful materials such as Ag, Al, Sn, Cu and Si from waste silicon solar cell chips is a sustainable project to slow down the ever-growing amount of waste crystalline-silicon photovoltaic panels. However, the recovery cost of the above-mentioned materials from silicon chips via acid-alkaline treatments outweights the gain economically.Herein, we propose a new proof-of-concept to fabricate Si-based anodes with waste silicon chips as raw materials.Nanoparticles from waste silicon chips were prepared with the high-energy ball milling followed by introducing carbon nanotubes and N-doped carbon into the nanoparticles, which amplifies the electrochemical properties. It is explored that Al and Ag elements influenced electrochemical performance respectively. The results showed that the Al metal in the composite possesses an adverse impact on the electrochemical performance. After removing Al, the composite was confirmed to possess a pronounced durable cycling property due to the presence of Ag, resulting in significantly more superior property than the composite having both Al and Ag removed.

Recent progress and perspective on batteries made from nuclear waste

Sustainable energy sources are an immediate need to cope with the imminent issue of climate change the world is facing today.In particular,the long-lasting miniatured power sources that can supply energy continually to power handheld gadgets,sensors,electronic devices,unmanned airborne vehicles in space and extreme mining are some of the examples where this is an acute need.It is known from basic physics that radioactive materials decay over few years and some nuclear materials have their half-life until thousands of years.The past five decades of research have been spent harnessing the decay energy of the radioactive materials to develop batteries that can last until the radioactive reaction continues.Thus,an emergent opportunity of industrial symbiosis to make use of nuclear waste by using radioactive waste as raw material to develop bat-teries with long shelf life presents a great opportunity for sustainable energy resource development.However,the current canon of research on this topic is scarce.This perspective draws fresh discussions on the topic while highlighting future directions in this wealthy arena of research.Graphical abstract A long-lasting miniaturised nuclear battery utilising 14C radioactive isotope as fuel.

Dendritic Nanostructured Waste Copper Wires for High-Energy Alkaline Battery

Rechargeable alkaline batteries(RABs)have received remarkable attention in the past decade for their high energy,low cost,safe operation,facile manufacture,and ecofriendly nature.To date,expensive electrode materials and current collectors were predominantly applied for RABs,which have limited their real-world efficacy.In the present work,we propose a scalable process to utilize electronic waste(e-waste)Cu wires as a cost-effective current collector for high-energy wire-type RABs.Initially,the vertically aligned CuO nanowires were prepared over the waste Cu wires via in situ alkaline corrosion.Then,both atomiclayer-deposited NiO and NiCo-hydroxide were applied to the CuO nanowires to form a uniform dendritic-structured NiCo-hydroxide/NiO/CuO/Cu electrode.When the prepared dendritic-structured electrode was applied to the RAB,it showed excellent electrochemical features,namely high-energy-density(82.42 Wh kg−1),excellent specific capacity(219 mAh g−1),and long-term cycling stability(94%capacity retention over 5000 cycles).The presented approach and material meet the requirements of a cost-effective,abundant,and highly efficient electrode for advanced eco-friendly RABs.More importantly,the present method provides an efficient path to recycle e-waste for value-added energy storage applications.

Fabrication of Silicon/Carbon Composite Material with Silicon Waste and Carbon Nanofiber Applied in Lithium-Ion Battery

Silicon (Si) is regarded as a promising material for lithium-ion battery anode because of high theoretical capacity. Nevertheless, Si faces particle pulverization and rapid capacity fading due to serious volume change during the lithiation and the delithiation process. In this work, a silicon/carbon composite constituted to Si powder and carbon nanofiber (CNF) is produced to solve the above issues as a new design structure of anode material. The Si powder was recycled from the silicon slicing waste in photovoltaic industry and the CNF was from dry rice straws. By mixing the purified Si powder with CNF, the composite was synthesized by the freeze-drying method and calcination. In the cyclic test, Si adding with 1 wt% CNF showed 3091 mAh/g capacity in the first cycle and 1079 mAh/g capacity after 100 cycles at the current density of 0.5 A/g, which were both better than pristine Si. SEM images also show the composite structure can eliminate cracks on the surface of the electrode during cycling. CNF attaching on Si particles can increase specific surface area, so binder can easily combine the active materials and the conductive materials together. This strategy enhances the structure stability and prevents the electrode from delamination.

Comprehensive Waste Minimization Study at an Industrial Battery Manufacturing Plant in Ohio, USA

Industrial battery manufacturing facilities generate large quantities of hazardous waste, which must be properly treated before it can be disposed. Reducing the quantities of these waste streams can significantly reduce the cost of treatment and lead to competitive advantages. Waste minimization at these facilities is beneficial for the stakeholders and the environment. The quantities of hazardous waste can be minimized by upgrading the facility＇s technology or substituting hazardous substances, which are used in the battery manufacturing process, with more environmentally friendly options. Separation of waste streams will allow for additional reuse opportunities and revenue generation from the sale of these materials, which will enhance the financial performance of the facility. This paper provides a case study of comprehensive waste minimization in a battery manufacturing plant in Ohio, USA. Source reduction, recovery, and recycling methods are taken into account with consideration given to economic impacts. The goal of the study was to develop an understanding of the facility＇s waste generating processes, to suggest methods to reduce to the waste generation and finally to select an appropriate waste minimization option to suggest the facility＇s management team. Some of the suggested methods are currently being practiced while others are at the initial stage of development.

Research on thin grid materials of lead-acid batteries

A detailed investigation on Pb-Ca-Sn alloys was made in order to choose suitable grid alloys materials for thin plate lead-acid batteries. The electrochemical performances of alloys were investigated by electrochemical corrosion experiment, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and cyclic voltammetry (CV) test. The results indicate that Pb-Ca-Sn-Bi-Cu alloys can be used to make the grids used for thin grid lead-acid batteries, the content of bismuth has primary effects on the corrosion resistance of grid alloys, the composition of alloys plays an important role on batteries performance, and appropriate scale of elements can be choosed to obtain optimal electrochemical performance. The lead-acid batteries using this kind of grid show good performance by cycle life test.

Experiments Study on Charge Technology of Lead-Acid Electric Vehicle Batteries

The basic theory of the fast charge and several charge methods are introduced. In order to heighten charge efficiency of valve-regulated lead-acid battery and shorten the charge time, five charge methods are investigated with experiments done on the Digatron BNT 400-050 test bench. Battery current, terminal voltage, capacity, energy and terminal pole temperature during battery experiment were recorded, and corresponding curves were depicted. Battery capacity-time ratio, energy efficiency and energy-temperature ratio are put forward to be the appraising criteria of lead-acid battery on electric vehicle （EV）. According to the appraising criteria and the battery curves, multistage-current/negative-pulse charge method is recommended to charge lead-acid EV battery.

PREPARATION OF LEAD-ACID BATTERY USING ELECTROPLATED RETICULATED SiC AS THE POSITIVE CURRENT COLLECTOR

The possibility of using Pb-electroplated reticulated SiC as the positive current collector for lead-acid batteries was investigated. Reticulated SiC with two aperture sizes (3 and 2mm) were tested as the substrate of positive electrode. It was found that the reticulated SiC has an excellent corrosion resistance in H2SO4 solution, and the Pb layer electroplated on reticulated SiC showed analogous electrochemical behavior to metal Pb. Preliminary test of the battery performance indicated that the utilization efficiency of the positive active mass of new designed batteries are improved compared with the conventional batteries. The improvement could be ascribed to the high specific surface area of the reticulated structured positive current collector, which was further supported by the even better performance of the battery made from a smaller aperture size (2mm) reticulated SiC as the substrate of the positive electrode.

Self-Discharge in Valve-Regulated Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries

Factors that cause the self-discharge in valve-regulated sealed lead-acid batteries are discussed and measures to inhibit the self-discharge are put forward.

Study of the Charge Acceptance of Small-Size Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries

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Mathematical Model and Experiment of Temperature Effect on Discharge of Lead-Acid Battery for PV Systems in Tropical Area

This paper presents Mathematical Model and Experiment of Temperature effect on Charge and Discharge of Lead-Acid Battery performance in PV system power supply. To test temperature effect on battery discharge cycles, a temperature range of tropical area from 25 - 60 degrees Celsius in a simulator is set up for testing. This temperature range is normally practical for battery usage. This allows the battery to determine the parameters of the battery quickly and high accurate. A Mathematical Model with MATLAB Program is written and constructed as block diagram using the equations of battery the parameters. By running program, the effects of various parameters are investigated. The results showed that time of discharge the battery is longer. Then, the experiment is set up by battery VRLA 12 V 20 AH. The results confirmed the mathematical model simulations.

A study on equivalent circuit model of lead-acid battery for electric vehicles

A 100Ah@42V lead-acid battery package for electric vehicles are used for study. 1he hybrid pulse test is applied to the battery package to acquire enough data, by which the partnership for a new generation of vehicles （PNGV） equivalent circuit model parameters are identified by the least square method. Then, the PNGV model is verified under two conditions, i.e., the composite pulse excitation and the constant-current respectively. The corresponding maximum relative errors of output voltage are less than 3 % and 3.5 %. Results show that the present PNGV equivalent circuit model and verification method is effective, which can satisfy requirement of simulation of power system of electric vehicles.

Potentiometric Measurement of State-of-Charge of Lead-Acid Batteries Using Polymeric Ferrocene and Quinones Derivatives

Measurement of state-of-charge of lead-acid batteries using potentiometric sensors would be convenient;however, most of the electrochemical couples are either soluble or are unstable in the battery electrolyte. This paper describes the results of an investigation of poly (divinylferrocene) (PDVF) and Poly(diethynylanthraquinone) (PAQ) couples in sulfuric acid with the view to developing a potentiometric sensor for lead-acid batteries. These compounds were both found to be quite stable and undergo reversible reduction/oxidation in sulfuric acid media. Their redox potential difference varied linearly with sulfuric acid concentration in the range of 1 M - 5 M (i.e. simulated lead-acid electrolyte during battery charge/discharge cycles). A sensor based on these compounds has been investigated.

Application of a Sulfur Removal Hydrometallurgical Process in a Lead-Acid Battery Recycling Plant in Costa Rica

This study presents the implementation of a desulphurization process for lead recycling under different chemical and physical conditions using pyro-metallurgical processes. Desulphurization was done using a hydrometallurgical process using sodium carbonate as a desulphurization agent and different lead-bearing loads compositions. Waste characterization included: SO2 concentrations in the stack emissions, total lead content in the furnace ash, the total lead content in the slag, and the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP). A significant reduction in SO2 emissions was achieved (~55% reduction) where mean SO2 concentrations changed from 2193 ± 135 ppm to 1006 ± 62 ppm after the implementation of the modified processes. The desulfurized lead paste (i.e. the metallic fraction lead of the battery) of the modified process exhibited an improvement in the concentration of the lead in the TCLP test, with an average value of 1.5 ppm which is below US EPA limit of 5 ppm. The traditional process TCLP mean value for the TCLP was 54.2 ppm. The total lead content in the bag house ashes shows not significant variations, when comparing the desulphurization (67.6% m/m) and non-desulphurization process (64.9% m/m). The total lead mean content in the slag was higher in the desulphurization process (2.49% m/m) than the traditional process (1.91% m/m). Overall, the implementation of a new desulphurization method would potentially increase the operation costs in 10.3%. At the light of these results, a combination of hydrometallurgical and pyro-metallurgical processes in the recycling of lead-acid batteries can be used to reduce the environmental impact of these industries but would increase the operational costs of small lead recyclers.

Preparation of lithium-ion battery anode materials from graphitized spent carbon cathode derived from aluminum electrolysis

Graphitized spent carbon cathode(SCC)is a hazardous solid waste generated in the aluminum electrolysis process.In this study,a flotation-acid leaching process is proposed for the purification of graphitized SCC,and the use of the purified SCC as an anode material for lithium-ion batteries is explored.The flotation and acid leaching processes were separately optimized through one-way experiments.The maximum SCC carbon content(93wt%)was achieved at a 90%proportion of−200-mesh flotation particle size,a slurry concentration of 10wt%,a rotation speed of 1600 r/min,and an inflatable capacity of 0.2 m^(3)/h(referred to as FSCC).In the subsequent acid leaching process,the SCC carbon content reached 99.58wt%at a leaching concentration of 5 mol/L,a leaching time of 100 min,a leaching temperature of 85°C,and an HCl/FSCC volume ratio of 5:1.The purified graphitized SCC(referred to as FSCC-CL)was utilized as an anode material,and it exhibited an initial capacity of 348.2 mAh/g at 0.1 C and a reversible capacity of 347.8 mAh/g after 100 cycles.Moreover,compared with commercial graphite,FSCC-CL exhibited better reversibility and cycle stability.Thus,purified SCC is an important candidate for anode material,and the flotation-acid leaching purification method is suitable for the resourceful recycling of SCC.

Battery Management System with State ofCharge Indicator for Electric Vehicles

Aim To research and develop a battery management system(BMS)with the state of charge(SOC)indicator for electric vehicles (EVs).Methods On the basis of analyzing the electro-chemical characteristics of lead-acid. battery, the state of charge indicator for lead-acid battery was developed by means of an algorithm based on combination of ampere-hour, Peukert's equation and open-voltage method with the compensation of temperature,aging,self- discharging,etc..Results The BMS based on this method can attain an accurate surplus capa- city whose error is less than 5% in static experiments.It is proved by experiments that the BMS is reliable and can give the driver an accurate surplus capacity,precisely monitor the individual battery modules as the same time,even detect and warn the problems early,and so on. Conclusion A BMS can make the energy of the storage batteries used efficiently, develop the batteries cycle life,and increase the driving distance of EVs.

From food waste to high-capacity hard carbon for rechargeable sodium-ion batteries

In this study,we introduce a straightforward and effective approach to produce P-doped hard carbon using coffee grounds as the precursor,with H_(3)PO_(4)serving as the doping agent.By varying the concentrations of H_(3)PO_(4)(1 M,2 M,and 3 M),we aimed to determine the optimal doping level for maximizing the incorporation of phosphorus ions into the carbon framework.Our investigation revealed that using 2 M of H_(3)PO_(4)as the dopant material for hard carbon led to promising electrochemical performance when employed as an anode material for sodium-ion batteries.The P-doped hard carbon,carbonized at 1300℃,exhibited an impressive reversible capacity of 341 mAh g^(-1) at a current density of 20 mA g^(-1),with an initial Coulombic efficiency(ICE)of 83%.This outstanding electrochemical performance of P-doped hard carbon can be attributed to its unique properties,including a porous agglomerated structure,a significant interlayer spacing,and the formation of C-P bonds.