Experiment study on water-rock interaction about gold activation and migration in different solutions

The interactions on gold active and migratory quantities and rates between tuffaceous slate and solu tions with different compositions were experimentally studied at 200 ℃, 20 MPa, in a high pressure apparatus. After reaction, tuffaceous slate became light colored and soft, and its mass density reduced. The amount of gold extracted from tuffaceous slate ranges widely, from 0 027 to 0 234 μg/g. Chlorine solution may activate appreciable amount of gold, and the gold migratory rate is high enough, from 50 70% to 92 30%, which reveals that sulphur and chlorine work together in solutions to accelerate gold activation and migration, and to realize gold mineralization in favorable places.

Groundwater monitoring of an open-pit limestone quarry:Water-rock interaction and mixing estimation within the rock layers by geochemical and statistical analyses

Water-rock interaction and groundwater mixing are important phenomena in understanding hydrogeological systems and the stability of rock slopes especially those consisting largely of moderately watersoluble minerals like calcite. In this study, the hydrogeological and geochemical evolutions of groundwater in a limestone quarry composed of three strata: limestone layer(covering), interbedded layer under the covering layer, and slaty greenstone layer(basement) were investigated. Water-rock interaction in the open-pit limestone quarry was evaluated using PHREEQC, while hierarchical cluster analysis(HCA)and principal component analysis(PCA) were used to classify and identify water sources responsible for possible groundwater mixing within rock layers. In addition, Geochemist's Workbench was applied to estimate the mixing fractions to clarify sensitive zones that may affect rock slope stability. The results showed that the changes in Ca2+and HCO3àconcentrations of several groundwater samples along the interbedded layer could be attributed to mixing groundwater from the limestone layer and that from slaty greenstone layer. Based on the HCA and PCA results, groundwaters were classified into several types depending on their origin:(1) groundwater from the limestone layer(LO),(2) mixed groundwater flowing along the interbedded layer(e.g., groundwater samples L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4), and(3) groundwater originating from the slaty greenstone layer(SO). The mixing fractions of 41% LO: 59% SO, 64% LO: 36% SO, 43%LO: 57% SOand 25% LO: 75% SOon the normal days corresponded to groundwaters L-7, L-11, S-3 and S-4,respectively, while the mixing fractions of groundwaters L-7 and L-11(61% LO: 39% SOand 93% LO: 7% SO,respectively) on rainy days became the majority of groundwater originating from the limestone layer.These indicate that groundwater along the interbedded layer significantly affected the stability of rock slopes by enlarging multi-breaking zones in the layer through calcite dissolution and inducing high water pressure, tension cracks and potential sliding plane along this layer particularly during intense rainfall episodes.

Water-Rock Interaction in Tarim Basin: Constraints from Oilfield Water Geochemistry

Oilfield waters from Cenozoic and Mesozoic terrestrial and Paleozoic marine environments in the Tarim Basin show no obvious difference in water chemistry except Br and isotopic compositions. The Paleozoic marine strata have higher Br concentrations than the terrestrial sediments, and the lack of obvious relationship between Br and Ⅰ suggests that Br is not, for the most part, derived from the degradation of organic matter. The oilfield waters are characterized by high TDS (total dissolved solids), ranging from 120000mg/L to 320000mg/L,relatively low Mg, high Ca, Sr, and CF relative to Br of evaporating seawater, suggestive of enhanced water-rock interaction. (Al (organic acid anions) concentrations are generally lower than 1500 mg/L with high values occurring over the temperature range from 95℃ to 140℃ ,in the Cambrian to Jurassic systems, and nearby unconformities. Organic acids are considered to be generated mainly from thermal maturation of kerogens during progressive burial of the Jurassic-Triassic and Cambrian-Ordovician systems, biodegradation of crude oils nearby unconformities, and thermochemical sulfate reduction in part of the Cambrian and Ordovician strata.High Al concentrations up to 3 mg/L to 5. 5 mg/L tend to occur in the waters of high OAA or petroleum- bearing intervals, suggesting the presence of organic complexing agents. Calculation by SOLMINEQ. 88 with updated database shows that AlAc2+ may account for more than 30%of the total Al. IsotoPic measurements (δD, δ18O) provide evidence for the following types of waters: diagenetically- modified connate meteoric water from the Jurassic and Triassic strata;diagenetically-modified connate marine water from the Cambrian and Ordovician strata; subaerially-evaporated water from the Cenozoic and Cretaceous strata; and mixed meteoric-evaporated or/and diagenetically modified connate water from the Carboniferous strata and reservoirs adjacent to the J/C and T/C unconformities. Those waters with very negativeδD values from -51. 30‰. to - 53. 80‰ (SMOW) and positive δ18 O values from 2. 99‰ to 4. 99‰(SMOW) in the continuous burial of the Cambrian-Ordovician system are explained to have resulted from hydrocarbon-water and water-rock interactions.

Hydrogeochemical Simulation of Water-Rock Interaction Under Water Flood Recovery in Renqiu Oilfield, Hebei Province, China

Hydrogeochemical simulation is an effective method to study water-rock interaction. In this paper, PHREEQM was used for the simulation of water-rock interaction under water flooding in the Renqiu Oilfield. Calculated results revealed that when fresh water was injected into the reservoir, Cl\+- and Na\++ would decrease without involvement in water-rock interaction. Erosion to dolomite will lead to an increase in Ca\+\{2+\}, Mg\+\{2+\} and CaHCO\++\-3. Saturation index of calcite and aragonite decreased first and then increased. With fresh water accounting for up to 70%, mixed water has the strongest erosion ability. Deoiled water has erosion ability under high temperature and high partial pressure of CO\-2. Pyrite and gypsum were sensitive to deoiled water, which can cause the dissolution of pyrite and the precipitation of gypsum. Micrographs revealed a great deal of information about water-rock interaction.

GIS-Hydrogeochemical Model of the YaoundéFractured Rock Aquifer, Cameroon: Aquifer Setting, Seasonal Variations in Groundwater-Rock Interaction and Water Quality

This study of the gneiss-fractured-rock aquifer in Yaoundé capital of Cameroon determines: the aquifer setting-flow systems, the aquifer type, seasonal variations in rock-water interactions, evolution of the hydrogeochemical processes, physicochemical parameters and the suitability for domestic-agro-industrial use of the groundwater. Physicochemical field tests were carried out on 445 wells during four seasons for EC, pH, TDS, Temperature and static water level from July 2016 to May 2017. 90 well samples were analyzed 45 samples per season: wet/dry. 38 borewell logs were used together with structural data to determine the aquifer setting. The field physico-chemical and laboratory analysis data of well samples were mounted unto various GIS software platforms: Global mapper, AqQa, Aquachem, Rockworks, Logplot7, Surfer and ArcGIS, to get indices/parameters/figures, by use of Durov’s, Piper’s and Gibbs diagrams, Water quality index WQI, USSL ratio, Sodium Absorption ratio SAR, Percent sodium %Na, Kelly Ratio KR, Magnesium Absorption Ratio MAR, Total Hardness TH, Residual Sodium Carbonate RSC and Permeability Index PI that were determined. The process of groundwater ions acquisition is three-fold: by recharge through atmospheric precipitation, by ion exchange/simple dissolution between the rock-groundwater and by groundwater mixing in its flow path. Water types are Ca-HCO3, Mg-HCO3 and Mg-Cl while hydrogeochemical facies are Ca-Mg-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-Cl-SO4. Most water samples are fresh, potable and soft all seasons. The hydrogeological conceptual model is that of a three-layered single phreatic fractured-rock-aquifer while other researchers postulated a two-aquifer, phreatic and semi-confined, two-layered model.

Strength weakening and its micromechanism in water–rock interaction,a short review in laboratory tests

Water–rock interaction(WRI)is a topic of interest in geology and geotechnical engineering.Many geological hazards and engineering safety problems are severe under the WRI.This study focuses on the water weakening of rock strength and its infuencing factors(water content,immersion time,and wetting–drying cycles).The strength of the rock mass decreases to varying degrees with water content,immersion time,and wetting–drying cycles depending on the rock mass type and mineral composition.The corresponding acoustic emission count and intensity and infrared radiation intensity also weaken accordingly.WRI enhances the plasticity of rock mass and reduces its brittleness.Various microscopic methods for studying the pore characterization and weakening mechanism of the WRI were compared and analyzed.Various methods should be adopted to study the pore evolution of WRI comprehensively.Microscopic methods are used to study the weakening mechanism of WRI.In future work,the mechanical parameters of rocks weakened under long-term water immersion(over years)should be considered,and more attention should be paid to how the laboratory scale is applied to the engineering scale.

Water/Rock Interactions and Changes in Chemical Composition During Zeolite Mineralization

Systematic analysis and comparative study of the chemical compositions of rocks and ores from the main types of zeolite deposits in the surroundings of the Songliao Basin have shown that the process of formation of zeolite from volcanic and pyroclastic rocks is generally characterized by the relative purification of SiO\-2, i.e., SiO\-2/Al\-2O\-3 ratios tend to increase, alkali earth elements (CaO+MgO) and H\-2O are relatively enriched, and the alkali metals (K\-2O+Na\-2O) are depleted in their total amount. The alkali metals K and Na follow different rules of migration and enrichment during the formation of mordenite and clinoptilolite. In the process of formation of mordenite more Na\++ will be imported and K\++ will be lost remarkably. On the contrary, in the process of formation clinoptilolite more K\++ will be incorporated and Na\++ will become obviously depleted.

Stress release mechanism of deep bottom hole rock by ultra-high-pressure water jet slotting

To solve the problems of rock strength increase caused by high in-situ stress,the stress release method with rock slot in the bottom hole by an ultra-high-pressure water jet is proposed.The stress conditions of bottom hole rock,before and after slotting are analyzed and the stress release mechanism of slotting is clarified.The results show that the stress release by slotting is due to the coupling of three factors:the relief of horizontal stress,the stress concentration zone distancing away from the cutting face,and the increase of pore pressure caused by rock mass expansion;The stress concentration increases the effective stress of rock along the radial distance from O.6R to 1R(R is the radius of the well),and the presence of groove completely releases the stress,it also allows the stress concentration zone to be pushed away from the cutting face,while significantly lowering the value of stresses in the area the drilling bit acting,the maximum stress release efficiency can reach 80%.The effect of slotting characteristics on release efficiency is obvious when the groove location is near the borehole wall.With the increase of groove depth,the stress release efficiency is significantly increased,and the release range of effective stress is enlarged along the axial direction.Therefore,the stress release method and results of simulations in this paper have a guiding significance for best-improving rock-breaking efficiency and further understanding the technique.

Hydrochemical Assessment of Groundwater and Dominant Water-Rock Interactions in Ooeides Aquifer System, North Greece

This paper deals with the assessment of main controls on groundwater chemistry in the aquifer system of Ooeides, Orestiada Region, NE Greece, contributing to the assessment of groundwater and surface water interaction, as well as water-rock interactions in the study area. Statistical analysis and relevant hydrochemical plots were employed in the analysis of groundwater samples from the study area during sampling campaigns for the years 2018, 2019 and 2020. The process included the collection and analysis of hydrochemical, hydrological and hydrogeological information and data regarding the aquifer system of the study area. Based on the statistical processing and the spatial analysis of the relevant results of the research, interesting and useful information emerged regarding: i) the recharge procedure of the aquifer from surface water of rivers and streams in the study area;ii) the relationship of groundwater composition with the type of rock through which water flows;iii) the impact on groundwater quality from anthropogenic activities (cultivation activities, municipal waste). From the elaboration of all the above, interesting findings and suggestions came out, which are considered useful for the optimal management of the hydrogeological regime of the study area.

Theoretical Modelling of Water-Rock δD-δ^(18)OIsotopic Exchange System and Source of Ore-Forming Fluid:A Case Study on Jinduicheng Superlarge-Scale Molybdenum Deposit,Central China

Based on the theoretical modelling of water-rock δD-δ18O isotopic exchange process,the evolution and sources of ore-forming fluid in four metallogenic epochs of the Jinduicheng su-perlarge-scale porphyry-type molybdenum deposit were investigated. It was revealed that in thepre-metallogenic and early-metallogenic epehs, the ore-forming fluid was a residual fluid derived from magmatic water-wall rock interaction at middle to high temperatures (T = 250 -500℃) and lower W/R ratios (0. 1 > = W/R >0.001 ), while in the metallogenic and Post-metallogenic epochs, the ore-forming nuid was a residual fluid derived from meteoric water-wallrock interaction at midd1e to lower temperatures (T = 150 - 310℃ ) and relatively high W/Rratios (0. 5 >W/R≥0.1 ). The meteoric water played an important role in molybdenum min-eralization, and at the main metallogenic epoch the W/R ratio reached its maximum value.

EXPERIMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY STUDY ON GOLD IN WATER-ROCK REACTION UNDER THERMAL FLUID SYSTEM AT MESO-LOW TEMPERATURE

Based on the knowing geochemical characteristics of wall rock in the Mobin gold deposit and composition of fluid inclusion in ore,water rock experiments were carried out, important achievements are acquired as following: Gold is mainly derived from the ore bearing wall rock,i.e., a series of epimetamorphic clastic gritstone, sandy slate, and tuffaceous slate in the Wuqiang Banxi Formation, Wuqiangxi Group. In thermal system with middle low temperature chlorine gold may be derived form stable complex ions, so it is quite important in gold metallogenic process. Sulphur and chlorine perform as the major negative ions throughout the gold activation and migration movement. The concentration of sulphur and chlorine ions, pH value and temperature are of deciding significance for gold activation, migration and precipitation.

A Theoretical Study of Rock Drilling with a High Pressure Water Jet

Based on analyses of experimental results of water jet drilling, the fluid motion law in rock pores and the tendency of energy distribution, the rock-breaking process under high pressure water jet drilling has been studied systematically. The research indicates that the main interaction between the rock and water jet is interface coupling, that the impacting load and the static pressure of the water jet act together to make the rock break, and that the stress wave is the main factor. Water jet drilling can be divided into two stages: At the initial stage, the stress wave plays the main role and most of the rock breaking takes place; at the later stage, the existing rock defects, for instance, micro-holes and micro-cracks, are propagated and merged to make macroscopic damage, and then the diameter of the jet-drilled hole is expanded.

泥岩卸荷损伤-水次序作用下的劣化规律研究

工程开挖建设导致软岩形成卸荷损伤,其在水-岩作用下的劣化特征与卸荷损伤程度密切相关。以巴东地区红层泥岩为研究对象,设计进行了泥岩卸荷损伤模拟试验,随后对卸荷损伤泥岩试样进行水-岩作用试验,结果显示:卸荷损伤导致泥岩局部矿物颗粒形态破坏、微裂缝发育,在后续水-岩作用下颗粒间胶结程度持续弱化,孔隙、裂缝进一步扩展。宏细观参数随水-岩作用时间的增长,其中质量m呈现先上升后骤然下降再趋于稳定的趋势,纵波波速P呈现先减少后上升的趋势,体积应变εv呈现逐渐增大的趋势,分形维数K呈逐渐增长的趋势;且各参数的增长速率均随卸荷损伤程度D的增大呈幂函数增加,当D≥0.49时,各参数的增长速率急剧增大;确定以质量、纵波波速、体积应变和分形维数作为与水反应系统的变量,并运用非线性动力学理论建立了水-岩作用下的泥岩劣化模型,并验证了模型的合理性。研究结果表明所建模型能表征卸荷损伤泥岩在水-岩作用下的宏细观特征参数变化趋势提供一定理论参考。

Water Quality Assessment in the Bamoun Plateau, Western-Cameroon: Hydrogeochemical Modelling and Multivariate Statistical Analysis Approach

This study focuses on the geochemical and bacteriological investigation of surface and ground water in the Bamoun plateau (Western-Cameroon). During the period from September 2013 to August 2014, 71 samples were collected from two springs, one borehole, four wells and the Nchi stream for analysis of major elements. In order to obtain the characteristics of the various species of bacteria, 7 samples were selected. The analytical method adopted for this study is the conventional hydrochemical technic and multivariate statistical analysis, coupled with the hydrogeochemical modelling. The results revealed that, water from the zone under study are acidic to basic, very weakly to weakly mineralized. Four types of water were identified: 1) CaMg-HCO3;2) CaMg-Cl-SO4;3) NaCl-SO4 and 4) NaK-HCO3. The major elements were all listed in the World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water quality, except for nitrates which was found at a concentration > 50 mg /l NO-3 in the borehole F401. As for the hydrobiological aspect, the entire sample contained all the bacteriological species except for spring S301 and well P401. According to the hydrogeochemical modelling, the Gibbs model and multivariate statistical tests, the quality of surface and ground water of the Foumban locality is influenced by two important factors: 1) the natural factors characterized by the water-rock interaction, evapotranspiration/crystallization, 2) the anthropogenic factors such as: uncontrolled discharges of liquid and solid effluents of all kinds and without any prior treatment within the ground and the strong urbanization accompanied by lack of sanitation and insufficient care.

NUMERICAL SIMULATION STUDY ON ROCK BREAKING MECHANISM AND PROCESS UNDER HIGH PRESSURE WATER JET

The numerical simulation method to study rock breaking process and mechanism under high pressure water jet was developed with the continuous mechanics and the FEM theory. The rock damage model and the damage-coupling model suited to analyze the whole process of water jet breaking rock were established with continuum damage mechanics and micro damage mechanics. The numerical results show the dynamic response of rock under water jet and the evolvement of hydrodynamic characteristic of jet during rock breaking is close to reality, and indicates that the body of rock damage and breakage under the general continual jet occurs within several milliseconds, the main damage form is tensile damage caused by rock unload and jet impact, and the evolvement of rock damage shows a step-change trend. On the whole, the numerical results can agree with experimental conclusions, which manifest that the analytical method is feasible and can be applied to guide the research and application of jet breaking rock theory.

页岩气层水-岩作用机理、特征及意义

页岩气效益开发依赖水平井分段水力压裂技术,然而水基钻井液、碱性油基钻井液、滑溜水压裂液、前置酸液和氧化性破胶液与页岩发生水-岩作用,潜在影响着钻井过程井壁稳定、压裂改造效果、压后闷井及返排效果。通过系统综述国内外页岩气层水-岩作用机理、水-岩作用下页岩组构响应特征,讨论了水-岩作用对页岩气开发的意义。综述认为,页岩富含水敏性组分黏土矿物等、酸敏性组分碳酸盐矿物、碱敏性组分石英等和氧敏性组分有机质和黄铁矿;页岩矿物组分水解程度极低,但黏土矿物水化膨胀、促缝现象突出;页岩孔隙和裂缝的分布均与化学不稳定组分石英、碳酸盐矿物、有机质和黏土矿物密切相关,化学溶蚀包括酸化溶蚀、碱液侵蚀和氧化溶蚀;水-岩作用下页岩组分溶蚀,诱发孔缝溶扩并劣化岩石力学性质。研究指出,推动工作液配方优化,攻关应用氧化性酸液和氧化性压裂液,有利于提高压裂造缝效果和促进吸附气产出,提高气层采收率;基于闷井压降曲线拐点确定最长闷井时间,构建考虑缝网导流能力保护的控压生产制度,有利于指导气井生产全过程合理控压,延长稳产期,提高单井产量。

亚临界水环境下川西糜棱岩水-热腐蚀效应研究

位于青藏高原东部的川西构造带分布有高温地热资源,但同时也是地震活动多发区。为探究地热流体对断层岩石的腐蚀损伤,本文对川西金河-箐河断裂带上的糜棱岩开展100~350℃亚临界水环境(100~374℃,饱和蒸汽压0.1~22.1MPa)下的水-岩相互作用试验,通过电感耦合等离子体质谱仪(ICP-MS)和低温氮气吸附实验(LTNA)分析了反应后溶液成分和岩石孔隙结构随温度的变化规律。研究结果表明,川西糜棱岩Si的溶解速率在100~350℃范围内与水-岩作用温度呈正相关,350℃时溶解速率是100℃的10.97倍,而Na、Ca、K、Al和Mg等金属元素的溶解速率远低于Si。在长期水-热腐蚀下,糜棱岩Si元素的大量析出和硅酸盐矿物的分解会破坏岩石的孔隙结构,伴随微孔、中孔的萌生和发育,糜棱岩总孔体积由25℃时的0.00541cm^(3)·g^(-1)升高到350℃的0.00659cm^(3)·g^(-1),且比表面积随热处理温度的升高呈上升趋势,这会加强水与糜棱岩的接触,从而导致岩石的进一步劣化。本项研究结果为探究糜棱岩在亚临界水环境下的水-热腐蚀机制和地热流体影响断层稳定性提供了一定的见解。

Formation Water Geochemistry and Its Controlling Factors: Case Study on Shiwu Rifted Sub-basin of Songliao Basin, NE China

A common way to trace fluid flow and hydrocarbon accumulation is by studying the geochemistry of formation water. This paper focuses on the spacial distribution of the geochemical features of the formation water in the Shiwu Rifled Basin and its indication of the water-rock interaction processes. The hydrodynamic field controls the spacial distribution of formation water. Due to the penetration of meteoric water, the salinity is below 4,500mg/L at the basin margin and the severely faulted central ridge and increases basin ward to 7,000-10,000mg/L. The vertical change of formation water can be divided into 3 zones, which correspond respectively to the free replacement zone （〈1,250m）, the obstructed replacement zone （1,250m-1,650m） and the lagged zone （〉 1,650m） in hydrodynamics. In the free replacement zone, the formation water is NaHCO3-type with its salinity increased to 10,000mg/L. The formation water in the obstructed replacement zone is Na2SO4-type with its salinity decreased to 5,000mg/L-7,000mg/L because of the dehydration of mud rocks. The formation water in the lagged zone is CaC12-type, but its salinity decreases sharply at a depth of 1,650m and then increases vertically downward to 10,000mg/L. This phenomenon can be best explained by the osmosis effect rather than the dehydration of mud rocks. The relationships between Cl^--HCO3^- and Na^＋＋K^＋-Ca^2＋ show that the initial water-rock interaction is the dissolution of NaCl and calcium-beating carbonate, causing an increase of Na^＋-K^＋-Ca^2＋-Cl^- and salinity. The succeeding water-rock interaction is albitization, which leads to a decrease of Na^＋ and an increase of Ca2＋ simultaneously, and generates CaCl2-type fluid. The above analysis shows that the geochemical evolution of formation water is governed by the water-rock interactions, while its spacial distribution is controlled by the hydrological conditions. The water-rock interaction processes are supported by other geological observations, suggesting that formation water geochemistry is a viable method to trace the fluid-rock interaction processes and has broad applications in practice.

基于水-岩相互作用的富水断层破碎带隧道突涌灾害演化特征

为研究开挖卸荷和水力荷载耦合作用下富水断层破碎带隧道突涌灾害演化特征,以沈白高铁西谷隧道工程为依托,考虑不同富水破碎带构造形式及地下水赋存特征,开展隧道突涌灾害演化过程研究。基于水-岩相互作用原理,建立三维离散元粘合块体-裂隙流耦合模型,明确不同地质构造特征下的隧道突涌灾害模式,分析破碎岩体裂隙扩展和地下水渗流的时空演化规律。研究结果有:引入黏合块体模型和裂隙流组合模型,建立了富水断层破碎带水岩相互作用力学模型,再现了富水破碎带隧道突涌灾害演化过程。不同富水破碎带构造形式引起的突涌灾变模式差异显著,且具有不同的触发条件和表现形式。断层破碎带倾角为45°时,破碎岩体沿掌子面下部溜塌涌入隧道,倾角为90°时,围岩向掌子面挤出,倾角为-45°时,表现为拱顶围岩垮塌。富水破碎带突涌灾害程度随着水头增大而加剧,其中倾角为-45°时,突涌灾害程度受水头高度的影响最显著,倾角为90°时,水头高度影响相对较弱,但突涌灾害程度最严重。