Significant reduction of ammonia emissions while increasing crop yields using the 4R nutrient stewardship in an intensive cropping system

Ammonia (NH_3) emissions should be mitigated to improve environmental quality.Croplands are one of the largest NH_3sources,they must be managed properly to reduce their emissions while achieving the target yields.Herein,we report the NH_3 emissions,crop yield and changes in soil fertility in a long-term trial with various fertilization regimes,to explore whether NH_3 emissions can be significantly reduced using the 4R nutrient stewardship (4Rs),and its interaction with the organic amendments (i.e.,manure and straw) in a wheat–maize rotation.Implementing the 4Rs significantly reduced NH_3 emissions to 6 kg N ha~(–1) yr~(–1) and the emission factor to 1.72%,without compromising grain yield (12.37 Mg ha~(–1) yr~(–1))and soil fertility (soil organic carbon of 7.58 g kg~(–1)) compared to the conventional chemical N management.When using the 4R plus manure,NH_3 emissions (7 kg N ha~(–1) yr~(–1)) and the emission factor (1.74%) were as low as 4Rs,and grain yield and soil organic carbon increased to 14.79 Mg ha~(–1) yr~(–1) and 10.09 g kg~(–1),respectively.Partial manure substitution not only significantly reduced NH_3 emissions but also increased crop yields and improved soil fertility,compared to conventional chemical N management.Straw return exerted a minor effect on NH_3 emissions.These results highlight that 4R plus manure,which couples nitrogen and carbon management can help achieve both high yields and low environmental costs.

Effect of Different Winter Cover Crops on Carbon Dioxide Emission in Paddy Field of Double Cropping Rice Area in Southern China

In this study, a two-year experiment was conducted by suing a static chamber method to observe the effects of straw recycling of winter cover crops measure on CO2 emission fluxes in southern China. Three patterns of winter use were performed in the paddy field, including RRR （rice-rice-ryegrass （Lolium multiflorum L.） cropping system）, CRR （rice-rice-Chinese milk vetch （Astragalus sinicus L.） cropping system） and FRR （rice-rice cropping system with winter fallow）. During the winter, the average daily CO2 fluxes were greater （P 〈 0.05） in the RRR and CRR than the FRR. During the winter crop growing seasons, both the average daily CO2 fluxes and the total CO2 emissions were different as the following orders： RRR 〉 CRR 〉 FRR. The average CO2 fluxes during early rice and late rice season were similar. The highest CO2 flux was found at rice tillering stage with an order as the follows： RRR 〉 CRR 〉 FRR and CRR 〉 RRR 〉 FRR both in 2009 and 2010, respectively. The annual CO2 emissions of RRR and CRR were significantly higher respectively by 857.0 g.CO2-C.m2 and 607.4 g.CO2-C.m-2 than the FRR. The results show that straw recycling of winter cover crops measure may strongly influence the CO2 emission in paddy field in southern China.

Non-leguminous winter cover crop and nitrogen rate in relation to double rice grain yield and nitrogen uptake in Dongting Lake Plain, Hunan Province, China

Annual ryegrass（Lolium multiflorum Lam.）, a non-leguminous winter cover crop, has been adopted to absorb soil native N to minimize N loss from an intensive double rice cropping system in southern China, but a little is known about its effects on rice grain yield and rice N use efficiency. In this study, effects of ryegrass on double rice yield, N uptake and use efficiency were measured under different fertilizer N rates. A 3-year（2009–2011） field experiment arranged in a split-plot design was undertaken. Main plots were ryegrass（RG） as a winter cover crop and winter fallow（WF） without weed. Subplots were three N treatments for each rice season： 0（N_0）, 100（N_（100）） and 200 kg N ha–1（N_（200））. In the 3-year experiment, RG reduced grain yield and plant N uptake for early rice（0.4–1.7 t ha–1 for grain yield and 4.6–20.3 kg ha–1 for N uptake） and double rice（0.6–2.0 t ha–1 for grain yield and 6.3–27.0 kg ha–1 for N uptake） when compared with WF among different N rates. Yield and N uptake decrease due to RG was smaller in N_（100） and N_（200） plots than in N_0 plots. The reduction in early rice grain yield in RG plots was associated with decrease number of panicles. Agronomic N use efficiency and fertilizer N recovery efficiency were higher in RG plots than winter fallow for early rice and double rice among different N rates and experimental years. RG tended to have little effect on grain yield, N uptake, agronomic N use efficiency, and fertilizer N recovery efficiency in the late rice season. These results suggest that ryegrass may reduce grain yield while it improves rice N use efficiency in a double rice cropping system.

Effects of Winter Cover Crop and Straw Returning on the Functional Diversity of Rhizosphere Microflora in Double-crop Rice Paddies

The functional diversity of rhizosphere microflora which is also known as the “microbial community” is a sensitive indicator of soil quality subject to the type of winter cover crop and straw returning.In order to evaluate the effects of different winter cover crops and returning patterns on the functional diversity of rhizosphere microflora in double-crop rice paddies,we designed five winter cover crops and straw returning combinations to analyze their effects on the functional diversity of rhizosphere microflora in rice paddies: ryegrass (Lolium multiflorumL.)–double-crop rice (Ry),milk vetch (Astragalus sinicus L.)–double-crop rice (Mv),Rape (Brassica napus L.)–Double-crop rice (Ra), Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)–double-crop rice (Po),and winter fallow–doublecrop rice (CK,the control).In this paper,the average well color development (AWCD) in Biolog-GN plates indicated the capacity for carbon utilization by the rhizosphere microbial community.We analyzed the rhizosphere microbial community functional diversity of the paddy soils with the above five treatments by using the Biolog-GN system.The results showed that applications of winter cover crop and straw returning caused high increases in AWCD compared with CK,and the AWCD values for samples with Po treatment was greater than those with Ry and CK treatments at the early and late rice maturity stages. It was concluded that applications of winter cover crop and straw returning can cause changes in the carbon utilization efficiency of rhizosphere microflora.There were differences in the genetic diversity of the rhizosphere microflora among different treatments at the maturity stage of early and late rice.The richness,Shannon,and McIntosh Index under different winter cover crop and straw returning treatments were significantly different.The highest indexes were observed in the Po treatment and the lowest in the CK at the maturity stage of early and late rice.The richness, Shannon,and McIntosh Index under different treatments ranked in descending order is as follows: Po>Ra>Mv>Ry>CK.Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of substrate reactions were conducted in this research.The results indicated that the pattern of carbon source utilization varied with winter cover crop treatments,and that carbohydrates and amino acids were the main carbon sources of rhizosphere microorganisms.To conclude,the application of winter cover crop and straw returning to paddy fields could significantly increase the carbon source utilization, species richness,and species evenness of rhizosphere microflora in double-crop rice paddies.

A simulation of winter wheat crop responses to irrigation management using CERES-Wheat model in the North China Plain

To improve efficiency in the use of water resources in water-limited environments such as the North China Plain（NCP）, where winter wheat is a major and groundwater-consuming crop, the application of water-saving irrigation strategies must be considered as a method for the sustainable development of water resources. The initial objective of this study was to evaluate and validate the ability of the CERES-Wheat model simulation to predict the winter wheat grain yield, biomass yield and water use efficiency（WUE） responses to different irrigation management methods in the NCP. The results from evaluation and validation analyses were compared to observed data from 8 field experiments, and the results indicated that the model can accurately predict these parameters. The modified CERES-Wheat model was then used to simulate the development and growth of winter wheat under different irrigation treatments ranging from rainfed to four irrigation applications（full irrigation） using historical weather data from crop seasons over 33 years（1981–2014）. The data were classified into three types according to seasonal precipitation： 〈100 mm, 100–140 mm, and 〉140 mm. Our results showed that the grain and biomass yield, harvest index（HI） and WUE responses to irrigation management were influenced by precipitation among years, whereby yield increased with higher precipitation. Scenario simulation analysis also showed that two irrigation applications of 75 mm each at the jointing stage and anthesis stage（T3） resulted in the highest grain yield and WUE among the irrigation treatments. Meanwhile, productivity in this treatment remained stable through different precipitation levels among years. One irrigation at the jointing stage（T1） improved grain yield compared to the rainfed treatment and resulted in yield values near those of T3, especially when precipitation was higher. These results indicate that T3 is the most suitable irrigation strategy under variable precipitation regimes for stable yield of winter wheat with maximum water savings in the NCP. The application of one irrigation at the jointing stage may also serve as an alternative irrigation strategy for further reducing irrigation for sustainable water resources management in this area.