Development and Characterization of Eco-Friendly Non-Isocyanate Urethane Monomer from Jatropha curcas Oil for Wood Composite Applications

The aim of this research work was to evaluate the potential of using renewable natural feedstock,i.e.,Jatropha curcas oil(JCO)for the synthesis of non-isocyanate polyurethane(NIPU)resin for wood composite applications.Commercial polyurethane(PU)is synthesized through a polycondensation reaction between isocyanate and poly-ol.However,utilizing toxic and unsustainable isocyanates for obtaining PU could contribute to negative impacts on the environment and human health.Therefore,the development of PU from eco-friendly and sustainable resources without the isocyanate route is required.In this work,tetra-n-butyl ammonium bromide was used as the activator to open the epoxy ring with 3-Aminopropyltriethoxisylane as a catalyst to yield urethane of JCO(UJCO).The UJCO were characterized by Fourier Transform Infra-Red spectroscopy(FTIR)and their oxirane,and hydroxyl values were measured.The result showed that a decrease in oxirane value was found while the hydroxyl value was increased during the time,confirming that the urethane group was formed.The presence of functional groups in FTIR spectra at wave numbers 1732.08,1562.34,and 3348.42 cm^(−1) indicates the functional groups of C=O(urethane carbonyl),–NH,and–OH,respectively confirmed this finding.The potential applications of NIPU in the wood composite were also outlined.

The sampling apparatus of volatile organic compounds for wood composites

Terpenes, aldehydes, ketones, benzene, and toluene are the important volatileorganic compounds (VOCs) emitted from wood composites. A sampling apparatus of VOCs for woodcomposites was designed and manufactured by Northeast Forestry University in China. Theconcentration of VOCs derived from wood based materials, such as flooring, panel wall, finishing,and furniture can be sampled in a small stainless steel chambers. A protocol is also developed inthis study to sample and measure the new and representative specimens. Preliminary research showedthat the properties of the equipment have good stability. The sort and the amount of differentcomponents can be detected from it. The apparatus is practicable.

Research advance in wood composites in China

Wood composites can generally be classified in three parts: laminated composites, mixed composites and penetrated composites. Every part has its own characteristic and can be further divided. This paper introduces the history and the state of development of wood composites in China. The research about glue-laminated timber is rare and the industry hardly comes to being. A great of achievements have been obtained in mixed composites and it is well industrialized. Many studies on scrimber have been done and the Chinese researchers are looking for a feasible way to develop the scrimber industry in China. Chinese researchers also spent so much energy in studying wood plastic composites (WPC), but it has not been industrialized due to the high cost.

Novel wood-plastic composite fabricated via modified steel slag:Preparation,mechanical and flammability properties

A novel method was developed to enhance the utilization rate of steel slag(SS).Through treatment of SS with phosphoric acid and aminopropyl triethoxysilane(KH550),we obtained modified SS(MSS),which was used to prepare MSS/wood-plastic composites(MSS/WPCs)by replacing talcum powder(TP).The composites were fabricated through melting blending and hot pressing.Their mechanical and combustion properties,which comprise heat release,smoke release,and thermal stability,were systematically investigated.MSS can improve the mechanical strength of the composites through grafting reactions between wood powder and thermoplastics.Notably,MSS/WPC#50(16wt%MSS)with an MSS-to-TP mass ratio of 1:1 exhibited optimal comprehensive performance.Compared with those of WPC#0 without MSS,the tensile,flexural,and impact strengths of MSS/WPC#50 were increased by 18.5%,12.8%,and 18.0%,respectively.Moreover,the MSS/WPC#50 sample achieved the highest limited oxygen index of 22.5%,the highest vertical burning rating at the V-1 level,and the lowest horizontal burning rate at 44.2 mm/min.The formation of a dense and stable char layer led to improved thermal stability and a considerable reduction in heat and smoke releases of MSS/WPC#50.However,the partial replacement of TP with MSS slightly compromised the mechanical and flame-retardant properties,possibly due to the weak grafting caused by SS powder agglomeration.These findings suggest the suitability of MSS/WPCs for high-value-added applications as decorative panels indoors or outdoors.

Valorization of Tree Bark-Derived Suberin in Applications for the Bio-Based Composites Industry–A Recent Review

Bark extracts are sustainable sources of biopolymers and hold great promise for replacing fossil fuel-based polymers,for example,in wood-based composites.In addition to primary and secondary metabolites,tree bark also contains suberin,which plays a major role in protecting the tree from environmental conditions.Suberin is a natural aliphatic-aromatic cross-linked polyester present in the cell walls of both normal and damaged external tissues,the main component of which are long-chain aliphatic acids.Its main role as a plant ingredient is to protect against microbiological factors and water loss.One of the most important suberin monomers are suberin fatty acids,known for their hydrophobic and barrier properties.Therefore,due to the diverse chemical composition of suberin,it is an attractive alternative to hydrocarbon-based materials.Although its potential is recognized,it is not widely used in biocomposites technology,including wood-based composites and the polymer industry.The article will discuss the current knowledge about the potential of suberin and its components in biocomposites technology,which will include surface finishes,composite adhesives and polymer blends.

Static Bending Creep Properties of Glass Fiber Surface Composite Wood

To study the static bending creep properties of glass fiber reinforced wood,glass fiber reinforced poplar(GFRP)specimens were obtained by pasting glass fiber on the upper and lower surfaces of Poplar(Populus euramevicana,P),the performance of Normal Creep(NC)and Mechanical Sorptive Creep(MSC)of GFRP and their influencing factors were tested and analyzed.The test results and analysis show that:(1)The MOE and MOR of Poplar were increased by 17.06%and 10.00%respectively by the glass fiber surface reinforced composite.(2)The surface reinforced P with glass fiber cloth only exhibits the NC pattern of wood and loses the MSC characteristics of wood,regardless of the constant or alternating changes in relative humidity.(3)The instantaneous elastic deformation,viscoelastic deformation,viscous deformation and total creep deflection of GFRP are positively correlated with the stress level of the external load applied to the specimen.Still,the specimen’s creep recovery rate is negatively correlated with the stress level of the external load applied to the specimen.The static creep deflection and viscous deformation of GFRP increase with the increase of the relative humidity of the environment.(4)The MSC maximum creep deflection of GFRP increased by only 7.41%over the NC maximum creep deflection,but the MSC maximum creep deflection of P increased by 199.25%over the NC maximum creep deflection.(5)The Burgers 4-factor model and the Weibull distribution equation can fit the NC and NC recovery processes of GFRP well.

Physicomechanical Properties of Sustainable Wood Plastic Composites of Tropical Sawdust and Thermoplastic Waste for Possible Utilization in the Wood Industry

This work investigated and quantified the physicomechanical properties of flat-pressed wood plastic composites produced with recycled polyethylene terephthalate, recycled polyethylene and sawdust derived from selected tropical timbers, namely, Nauclea diderrichii, Brachystegia eurycoma, Erythrophleum suaveolens and Prosopis africana, for possible utilization in the wood industry. The compounding of the polymer blends of the precursor plastics, namely recycled PET (rPET) and recycled PE (rPE) with the sawdust (SD) from the selected timbers to produce the desired wood rPET/rPE composites was carried out via the flat press method. The characterization of the physicomechanical properties of the wood plastic composites (WPCs) produced, such as the density, hardness, flexural strength, ultimate tensile strength, elongation %, thickness swelling and water absorption capacity was carried out using methods based mainly on the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) standards. The results of the investigation on the resultant composites indicated that changes in the SD content affected the density of flat-pressed WPCs in line with literature. Generally, it was observed that as wood dust increased and PET content decreased, the density of composites decreased with some deviations as expected probably due to the anisotropic nature of the wood fillers. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that there was a statistically significant variation in the wood composites of Nuclea diderichii based on the physicomechanical values as the p-value (0.020) obtained was less than the critical level of α = 0.05. It was also observed that the composite, Wood 1 Sample 5 (W1S5) which was composed of 40% rPE, 40% rPET and 20% SD (derived from Nuclea diderichii), had the highest percentage elongation (26.84%);the highest flexural strength (14.995 N/mm2) and possibly the least carbon footprint in the environment. These properties of W1S5 suggest that it could therefore be the best option for the production of building materials like ceiling boards or floor skirting in the wood plastic composite industry. The results of these investigations have therefore indicated that the fabrication of WPCs from sawdust and rPET/rPE was technically feasible and had prospects for large scale production in the wood industry.

Reinforcing effects of modified Kevlar~ fiber on the mechanical properties of wood-flour/polypropylene composites

Kevlar fiber （KF） is a synthesized product with strong mechanical properties. We used KF as a reinforcement to improve the mechanical properties of wood-flour/polypropylene （WF/PP） composites. KF was pretreated with NaOH to improve its compatibility with the thermoplastic matrix. Maleated polypropylene （MAPP） was used as a coupling agent to improve the interfacial adhesion between KF, WF, and PP. Incorporation of KF improved the mechanical properties of WF/PP composites. Treatment of KF with NaOH resulted in further improvement in mechanical strength. Addition of 3% MAPP and 2% hydrolyzed KF （HKF） led to an increment of 93.8% in unnotched impact strength, 17.7% in notched impact strength, 86.8% in flexure strength, 50.8% in flexure modulus, and 94.1% in tensile strength compared to traditional WF/PP composites. Scanning electron microscopy of the cryo-fractured section of WF/PP showed that the HKF surface was rougher than the virgin KF, and the KF was randomly distributed in the composites, which might cause a mechanical interlocking between KF and polypropylene molecules in the composites.

Production of mahogany sawdust reinforced LDPE wood–plastic composites using statistical response surface methodology

We produced wood–plastic composite board by using sawmill wastage of mahogany（Swietenia macrophylla） wood and low density polyethylene.We used multi-response optimization to optimize the process parameters of composite board production including mixing ratio,fire retardant（%） and pressing time（min）.We investigated the effects of these three process parameters in the mechanical and physical properties of the composite board.Afterwards,Box–Behnken design was performed as response surface methodology with desirability functions to attain the optimal level of mixing ratio,fire retardant and pressing time（min）.The maximum modulus of elasticity（MOE） and modulus of rupture（MOR） were achieved at the optimal conditions of wood plastic mixing ratio of60：40,pressing time of 9 min and zero fire retardant percentage.The optimized MOR and MOE were 13.12 and1,781.0 N mm-2,respectively.

Impacts of freezing and thermal treatments on dimensional and mechanical properties of wood flour-HDPE composite

Wood plastic composite （WPC） of wood flour （WF）, high density polyethylene （HDPE）, maleic anhydride-grafted polyethylene （MAPE） and lubricant was prepared by extrusion, and then exposed to different temperatures to evaluate the effects of freezing and thermal treatment on its dimensional and mechanical properties. At elevated temperatures, WPC expanded rapidly initially, and then contracted slowly until reaching an equilibrium state. Treatment at 52°C and relative humidity of 50% for 16 days improved the mechanical properties of WPC： flexure, tensile strength, and izod unnotched impact strength increased by 8%, 10% and 15%, respectively. Wide-angle X-ray diffraction （XRD） tests showed that the degree of crystalization of HDPE in WPC declined with increasing treatment temperature.

Preliminary study of viscoelastic properties of MAPP-modified wood flour/polypropylene composites

Viscoelastic properties of maleated polypropylene （MAPP）-modified wood flour/polypropylene composites （WPC） were investigated by both a compression stress relaxation method and dynamic mechanical analyses （DMA）. Three wood to polymer ratios （40：60, 60：40, and 80：20） and five MAPP loading levels （0, 1, 2, 4 and 8%） were used to study their effects on the viscoelastic prop- erties of MAPP-WPC. The results show that： 1） higher wood to polymer ratio corresponds to higher stress relaxation levels for unmodified WPC. The modification with MAPP has an obvious effect on the stress relaxation of MAPP-WPC at higher wood to polymer ratios （60：40 and 80：20）, but almost no effect at the 40：60 wood to polymer ratio. The optimal MAPP loading level for the wood to polymer ratio of 60：40 appears at 1%; 2） the storage modulus reaches its maximum at a MAPP loading level of 1% for wood to polymer ratios of 40：60 and 60：40, while for the 80：20 wood to polymer ratio, a higher storage modulus is observed at higher MAPP loading levels, which is quite consistent with the stress relaxation results. The results suggested that a suitable loading level of MAPP has a positive effect on the viscoelastic properties of WPC at higher wood to polymer ratios. Excessive MAPP loading would have resulted in adverse effects.

The Accelerated Thermo-Oxidative Aging Characteristics of Wood Fiber/Polycaprolactone Composite:Effect of Temperature,Humidity and Time

This study investigated the characteristics of wood fiber/polycaprolactone composite after an artificial accelerated thermo-oxidative aging treatment.The effect of time,temperature and humidity during the treatment on their mechanical,chemical and morphology properties were evaluated.The composite was prepared from melted wood fibers and modified polycaprolactone by a molding process.A temperature and humidity controllable test chamber was used for the thermo-oxidative aging of the composite.The thermo-oxidative aging caused surface of the composite to be much more rougher and even a few cracks and holes appeared on it.According to the spectra of Fourier Transform Infrared(FTIR)and Gel Permeation Chromatography(GPC),C=O in the molecular chain of polycaprolactone was hydrolyzed and C–O was broken after the aging treatment,which resulted in a reduction in average molecular weight of the composite.Moreover,results showed that the mechanical strength decreased a lot with the increase in time,temperature and humidity,and the effect of temperature and humidity was more significant compared with that of time.Controlling the temperature and humidity during thermo-oxidative aging treatment could accelerate the aging of composite,which provided a quick and effective method for evaluating the aging resistance of the composite.

Filling Behavior of Wood Plastic Composites

WPC （wood plastic composites） are a young generation of composites with rapidly growing usage within the plastics industry. The advantages are the availability and low price of the wood particles, the possibility of partially substituting the polymer in the mixture and sustainable use of the earth＇s resources. The current WPC products on the market are to a large extent limited to extruded products. Nowadays, there is a great interest in the market for consumer products in more use of WPC as an alternative to pure thermoplastics in injection molding processes. This work presents the results of numerical simulation and experimental visualization of the mold filling process in injection molding of WPC. The 3D injection molding simulations were done with the commercial software package Autodesk~ Moldflow Insight 2016 （AMI）. The mold filling experiments were conducted with a box-shaped test part. In contrast to unfilled polymers, the WPC has reduced melt elasticity so that the fountain flow often does not develop. This results in irregular flow front shapes in the molded part, especially at high filler content.

Dielectric properties of Simon poplar wood flour/polypropylene composite at oven-dry state

Interfacial compatibility is a crucial factor to the performance of wood-plastic composites （WPCs）. Yet, so far, the coupling mechanisms of WPC have not been completely understood. In order to further clarify the interfacial coupling mechanism, the dielectric constant and dielectric loss factor of Simon poplar wood flour/polypropylene composites without additives at different wood contents were measured at oven-dry state, and parameters and thermodynamic quantities of the relaxation process were also analyzed and calculated. Consequently, an obvious relaxation process based on the reorientation of methanol groups in amorphous region of wood cell wall was observed exactly that its dielectric loss factor peak decreased with the decreasing wood content within the measured range of 50%-100%. With the trend of dielectric relaxation strength, the two changing trends both revealed that the existence of polypropylene could hinder reorientation of methanol groups. Following the decreasing wood contents, the effect of the hindrance on the dielectric properties turned obvious gradually. It elucidated that introduction of polypropylene caused the quantities of hydrogen bonds formed between each methanol group and the groups around it change. The same conclusion could be drawn from the analysis of thermodynamic quantities during the dielectric relaxation progress.

The effect of Poly-ethylene-co-glycidyl methacrylate efficiency and clay platelets on thermal and rheological properties of wood polyethylene composites.

Global ecological concerns have resulted in an interest in renewable natural materials. Composites based on high density polyethylene (HDPE), wood fiber (Veneer) and containing coupling agents like nanoclay (NC) and poly-ethylene-co-glycidyl methacrylate (PEGMA) were made by melt compounding and then injection molding. In this study, the effects of two variable parameters namely nanoclay and coupling agent on the rheological and thermal properties of wood polyethylene composites (WPECs) were investigated. The study investigates the morphology phase, rheology behaviors and thermal properties by scanning electron microscope, capillary rheometer and thermal gravimetric analyzer. The SEM micrographs of the composites showed that the outer surfaces of the wood were coated by a section of amorphous lignin. The state of dispersion in HDPE/pine/clay composites was improved by EGMA because it could interact with pine flour in addition to clay. The interaction of reinforcement with coupling agent and HDPE matrix is strong based on the observation of the fracture surface of composites when EGMA is present. However the addition of 2.5% clay slightly lowered the initial degradation temperature (Td) but did not improve the thermal stability. Obviously, all the composites materials exhibit viscoelastic values greater than those of neat HDPE.

Mechanical Properties and Fire Retardancy of Wood Flour/High-Density Polyethylene Composites Reinforced with Continuous Honeycomb-Like Nano-SiO_(2)Network and Fire Retardant

The mechanical properties of wood flour/high-density polyethylene composites(WPC)were improved by adding a small amount of nano-SiO_(2)to obtain a network-structured WPC with a continuous honeycomb-like nano-SiO_(2)network.The wood flour was modified with a fire retardant(a mixture of sodium octabonate and amidine urea phosphate)to improve its fire retardancy.The flexural properties,creep resistance,thermal expansion,and fire retardancy of the WPC were compared to a control(WPCCTRL)without nano-SiO_(2)or fire retardant.The flexural strength and modulus of the WPC containing only 0.55 wt.%nano-SiO_(2)were 6.6%and 9.1%higher than the control,respectively,while the creep strain and thermal expansion rate at 90°C were 33.8%and 13.6%lower,respectively.The cone calorimetry tests revealed that the nano-SiO_(2)network physically shielded the WPC,giving it lower heat release and smoke production rates.The thermal expansion was further decreased by incorporating fire retardants into the WPC,which showed the lowest total heat release and total smoke production and the highest mass retention.This study demonstrates a facile procedure for producing WPC with desired performances by forming a continuous honeycomb-like network by adding a small amount of nanoparticles.

Effect of maleic anhydride grafted styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene （MA-SEBS） on impact fracture behavior of polypropylene / wood fiber composites

MA-SEBS as compatibilizer and impact modifier was incorporated into Polypropylene/Wood Fiber （PP/WF） to enhance interface adhesion and impact strength of the composite. The effect of MA-SEBS content on the impact fracture behavior of PP/WF composites was studied. The impact properties of composites with 8% MA-SEBS reached the maximum value. And further increasing of MA-SEBS content to 10% did not improve the fracture toughness, but improved the stiffness of composites by DMA analysis. This was attributed to the improved PP/WF adhesion. As the MA-SEBS content is more than 8%, the molecule interaction of PP and WF was expected to much stronger than lower MA-SEBS. Scanning electron microscopy （SEM） was performed to analyze the impact fracture surface and showed a stronger affinity for the wood surfaces.

Engineered Wood/Bamboo Laminated Composites for Outdoor Hydrophilic Platforms:Structural Design and Performance

Landscape designers increasingly prefer to use wood/bamboo-based composites for outdoor hydrophilic platforms owing to their natural surface texture,high performance,and sustainability to facilitate extensive interaction between people and water and enable the full range of ecological functions of water resources.In this study,four laminated composite(LC)structures were designed and manufactured using fluffed bamboo and wood veneers.Their surface textures,profile densities,water resistances,and mechanical properties were then evaluated.The type of fluffed veneer of the surface layer determined the texture of the LC surface.The specific structures of fluffed bamboo and wood veneer laminations were found to affect the LC profile density variability,water resistance,and mechanical properties owing to the differences in the strength and interfacial properties of bamboo and wood fibers.Finally,the water resistance and mechanical properties of all four LCs were found to be much higher than the highest level specified in GB/T 20241-2006 for“laminated veneer lumber”and GB/T 30364-2013 for“bamboo scrimber flooring”,indicating that they are promising materials for structures and flooring,particularly for outdoor hydrophilic platforms.

A Simulation Software for the Prediction of Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Wood Plastic Composites

Modelling and simulation has become an important tool in research and development. Simulation models are used to develop better understanding of the internal properties and impact of various parameters on the final quality of the product or process. Simulation model reduces the number of experiments and saves the wastage of material, time and money and are widely used in automobile industry, aircrafts manufacturing, process engineering, training for military, health care sector and many more. Wood Plastic Composite （WPC） is a bio-composite made by mixing wood fibers and plastic granules together at high temperature by compression molding or injection molding. A large quantity of WPC is rejected due to poor quality and low mechanical strength. There is a need to improve the understanding of the wood plastic composites, with both theoretical and experimental analysis. The impact of various parameters and processing conditions on the final product is not known to the industry people, due to less simulation models in this field. A new simulation software WPC Soft is developed to predict the mechanical and thermal properties of WPC. The software can predict the mechanical and thermal properties of WPC. The simulation results were validated with the experimental results and it was observed that the predicted values are quite close to the experimental values and with the further refining of the model, prediction can be further improved. The present simulation software can be easily used by the industry people and it requires very little knowledge of computers or modeling for its operation.

Effects of site conditions on growth and wood properties of Populus×euramericana cv.'74/76'

The growth and wood properties of 240 individual Populus×euramericana cv.’74/76’(hereafter poplar 107)trees planted in Hebei Plain,China was evaluated.Mean annual increments in height,breast height diameter and volume,as well as cellulose,hemicellulose and lignin contents,shrinkage,density,bending strength and modulus of elasticity in the heart wood and sap wood.Environmental factors influencing growth and wood properties were analyzed using correlation and stepwise regres sion.The results show that the coefficients of variation(CVs)of growth traits ranged from 10.6 to 22.4%.The CVs of the chemical properties of heartwood ranged from 4.3 to 30.2%,and for sap wood from 3.2 to 27.5%.The CVs of the physical and mechanical properties of heartwood ranged from 8.6 to 31.7%,and for sapwood from 6.4 to 29.9%.The results of one-way ANOVA showed that there were significant differences in growth traits and wood properties among sites.Soil pH,total and available phosphorus,total potassium,and soil organic matter were key soil factors affecting growth and wood properties of poplar 107,whereas mean annual ground temperatures and precipitation were the main climatic factors.To better cultivate poplar 107,area with less annual rainfall,slightly higher temperature and soil pH value close to neutral should be selected.