Semantic model and optimization of creative processes at mathematical knowledge formation

The aim of this work is mathematical education through the knowledge system and mathematical modeling. A net model of formation of mathematical knowledge as a deductive theory is suggested here. Within this model the formation of deductive theory is represented as the development of a certain informational space, the elements of which are structured in the form of the orientated semantic net. This net is properly metrized and characterized by a certain system of coverings. It allows injecting net optimization parameters, regulating qualitative aspects of knowledge system under consideration. To regulate the creative processes of the formation and realization of mathematical know- edge, stochastic model of formation deductive theory is suggested here in the form of branching Markovian process, which is realized in the corresponding informational space as a semantic net. According to this stochastic model we can get correct foundation of criterion of optimization creative processes that leads to “great main points” strategy (GMP-strategy) in the process of realization of the effective control in the research work in the sphere of mathematics and its applications.

Relationships of the iC4/n C4 and iC5/nC5 ratios with maturity of coal-derived gases of Triassic Xujiahe Formation in central Sichuan Basin, SW China

The original gas reservoirs in different areas and different layers of the Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the central Sichuan Basin are studied to reveal the relationships of iC4/nC4 and iC5/nC5 ratios in coal-derived gas components with maturity using conventional natural gas geochemical research methods. The testing results of 73 gas samples from 8 gas fields show that the iC4/nC4 and iC5/nC5 ratios in coal-derived gas have a good positive correlation, and the correlation coefficient is above 0.8. Both the iC4/nC4 and iC5/nC5 ratios become higher with the increase of natural gas dryness coefficient (C1/C1+) and the methane carbon isotope becoming less negative. These parameters are highly correlated. This study not only reveals characteristics of heavy hydrocarbon isomers generated by coal formation, but also puts forward new identification indicators reflecting the maturity of coal-derived gas, the regression between iC4/nC4, iC5/nC5 and Ro, which can provide an important reference for maturity, migration and accumulation of coal-derived gas, and late stage reformation of coal-derived gas reservoirs.

Toxicity evaluation of produced formation waters after filtration treatment

During the last years many authors have char-acterized the produced formation waters (PFWs) with respect to chemical compounds and toxic-ity. Most of data are related to PFWs collected on offshore platform after treatment process. The available results showed that the particulate phase had an influence on PFW toxicity. As-suming the toxicity of PFWs treated on platform, the aim of this paper is to study the toxicity of these PFWs after a further filtration treatment carried out in laboratory. For this purpose PFWs were sampled from three natural gas platforms located in the Adriatic Sea (Italy) below treat-ment system. The eco-toxicological bioassays have been conducted on test-organisms be-longing to different trophic levels such as bac-teria, algae, crustaceans and fishes. The PFWs resulted toxic according to an overall assess-ment obtained through the bioassays. Further-more, it has been possible to identify the spe-cies that were more sensitive to the tested PFWs, namely Tigriopus fulvus, Dicentrarchus labrax and Vibrio fischeri. Besides, a chemical char-acterization was reported related to the con-taminants present in the PFWs to go with eco-toxicological assessment. Barium, zinc and manganese showed the most concentrations among the metals and the lower molecular weight components were common among the organic compounds. Some differences among PFWs were observed both for toxicity and chemical composition. The highest toxicity was recorded in PFWs (PFW1 and PFW2) containing the highest concentrations of some metals (Ba, Mn and Zn) and/or BTEX.

Geological characteristics and models of fault-foldfracture body in deep tight sandstone of the second member of Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in Xinchang structural belt of Sichuan Basin,SW China

In the second member of the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation(T_(3)x_(2))in the Xinchang area,western Sichuan Basin,only a low percent of reserves has been recovered,and the geological model of gas reservoir sweet spot remains unclear.Based on a large number of core,field outcrop,test and logging-seismic data,the T_(3)x_(2) gas reservoir in the Xinchang area is examined.The concept of fault-fold-fracture body(FFFB)is proposed,and its types are recognized.The main factors controlling fracture development are identified,and the geological models of FFFB are established.FFFB refers to faults,folds and associated fractures reservoirs.According to the characteristics and genesis,FFFBs can be divided into three types:fault-fracture body,fold-fracture body,and fault-fold body.In the hanging wall of the fault,the closer to the fault,the more developed the effective fractures;the greater the fold amplitude and the closer to the fold hinge plane,the more developed the effective fractures.Two types of geological models of FFFB are established:fault-fold fracture,and matrix storage and permeability.The former can be divided into two subtypes:network fracture,and single structural fracture,and the later can be divided into three subtypes:bedding fracture,low permeability pore,and extremely low permeability pore.The process for evaluating favorable FFFB zones was formed to define favorable development targets and support the well deployment for purpose of high production.The study results provide a reference for the exploration and development of deep tight sandstone oil and gas reservoirs in China.

Petrophysical and capillary pressure properties of the upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation tight gas sandstones in western Sichuan,China

The tight sandstones of the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation（T_3x） constitute important gas reservoirs in western Sichuan.The Xujiahe sandstones are characterized by low to very low porosity （av.5.22%and 3.62%） for the T_3x^4 and T_3x^2 sandstones,respectively）,extremely low permeability（av. 0.060 mD and 0.058 mD for the T_3x^4 and T_3x^2 sandstones,respectively）,strong heterogeneity,micronano pore throat,and poor pore throat sorting.As a result of complex pore structure and the occurrence of fractures,weak correlations exist between petrophysical properties and pore throat size,demonstrating that porosity or pore throat size alone does not serve as a good permeability predictor.Much improved correlations can be obtained between permeability and porosity when pore throat radii are incorporated. Correlations between porosity,permeability,and pore throat radii corresponding to different saturations of mercury were established,showing that the pore throat radius at 20%mercury saturation（R_（20）） is the best permeability predictor.Multivariate regression analysis and artificial neural network（ANN） methods were used to establish permeability prediction models and the unique characteristics of neural networks enable them to be more successful in predicting permeability than the multivariate regression model.In addition, four petrophysical rock types can be identified based on the distributions of R_（20）,each exhibiting distinct petrophysical properties and corresponding to different flow units.

Genetic mechanisms of high-quality tight siliciclastic reservoirs:A case study from the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Yuanba area,Sichuan Basin,China

This study analyzed the petrological characteristics,diagenesis,pore types,and physical properties of the tight coarse-grained siliciclastic sequences in the third member of the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation(also referred to as the Xu-3 Member)in the western Yuanba area in the northeastern Sichuan Basin,China,based on the results of 242.61-m-long core description,292 thin-section observations,scanning electron microscopy(SEM),and 292 physical property tests.The types and genetic mechanisms of high-quality tight coarse-grained siliciclastic reservoirs in this member was determined thereafter.The research objective is to guide the exploration and development of the tight coarse-grained siliciclastic sequences in the Xu-3 Member.The results of this study are as follows.Two types of high-quality reservoirs are developed in the coarse-grained siliciclastic sequences of the Xu-3 Member,namely the fractured fine-grained sandy conglomerate type and porous medium-grained calcarenaceous sandstone type.Hydrodynamic energy in the sedimentary environment is the key factor controlling the formation of high-quality reservoirs.These high-quality reservoirs are developed mainly in the transitional zone with moderately high hydrodynamic energy between delta-plain braided channels and delta-front subaqueous distributary channels.The dolomitic debris(gravel)content is the main factor affecting the reservoirs’physical properties.The micritic algal debris and sandy debris in the dolomitic debris(or gravels)tend to recrystallize during burial,forming intercrystalline pores within.In the medium-grained calcarenaceous sandstones,intercrystalline pores in the dolomitic debris are formed at the early diagenetic stage,and a pore system consisting of structural fractures connecting intergranular pores,intergranular dissolution pores,and kaolinite intergranular micropores is developed at the late stage of diagenesis.The formation of intercrystalline pores in dolomite gravels and gravel-edge fractures,a pore system connected by gravel-edge and tectonic fractures,is closely related to the dolomite gravels in the sandy fine-grained conglomerates.

An Overview and Perspectives On Bidirectional Intelligence: Lmser Duality, Double IA Harmony,and Causal Computation

Advances on bidirectional intelligence are overviewed along three threads,with extensions and new perspectives.The first thread is about bidirectional learning architecture,exploring five dualities that enable Lmser six cognitive functions and provide new perspectives on which a lot of extensions and particularlly flexible Lmser are proposed.Interestingly,either or two of these dualities actually takes an important role in recent models such as U-net,ResNet,and Dense Net.The second thread is about bidirectional learning principles unified by best yIng-yAng(IA)harmony in BYY system.After getting insights on deep bidirectional learning from a bird-viewing on existing typical learning principles from one or both of the inward and outward directions,maximum likelihood,variational principle,and several other learning principles are summarised as exemplars of the BYY learning,with new perspectives on advanced topics.The third thread further proceeds to deep bidirectional intelligence,driven by long term dynamics(LTD)for parameter learning and short term dynamics(STD)for image thinking and rational thinking in harmony.Image thinking deals with information flow of continuously valued arrays and especially image sequence,as if thinking was displayed in the real world,exemplified by the flow from inward encoding/cognition to outward reconstruction/transformation performed in Lmser learning and BYY learning.In contrast,rational thinking handles symbolic strings or discretely valued vectors,performing uncertainty reasoning and problem solving.In particular,a general thesis is proposed for bidirectional intelligence,featured by BYY intelligence potential theory(BYY-IPT)and nine essential dualities in architecture,fundamentals,and implementation,respectively.Then,problems of combinatorial solving and uncertainty reasoning are investigated from this BYY IPT perspective.First,variants and extensions are suggested for AlphaGoZero like searching tasks,such as traveling salesman problem(TSP)and attributed graph matching(AGM)that are turned into Go like problems with help of a feature enrichment technique.Second,reasoning activities are summarized under guidance of BYY IPT from the aspects of constraint satisfaction,uncertainty propagation,and path or tree searching.Particularly,causal potential theory is proposed for discovering causal direction,with two roads developed for its implementation.

Petroleum Source-Rock Evaluation and Hydrocarbon Potential in Montney Formation Unconventional Reservoir, Northeastern British Columbia, Canada

Source-rock characteristics of Lower Triassic Montney Formation presented in this study shows the total organic carbon (TOC) richness, thermal maturity, hydrocarbon generation, geographical distribution of TOC and thermal maturity (Tmax) in Fort St. John study area (T86N, R23W and T74N, R13W) and its environs in northeastern British Columbia, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). TOC richness in Montney Formation within the study area is grouped into three categories: low TOC ( 3.5 wt%), and high TOC (>3.5 wt% %). Thermal maturity of the Montney Formation source-rock indicates that >90% of the analyzed samples are thermally mature, and mainly within gas generating window (wet gas, condensate gas, and dry gas), and comprises mixed Type II/III (oil/gas prone kerogen), and Type IV kerogen (gas prone). Analyses of Rock-Eval parameters (TOC, S2, Tmax, HI, OI and PI) obtained from 81 samples in 11 wells that penetrated the Montney Formation in the subsurface of northeastern British Columbia were used to map source rock quality across the study area. Based on total organic carbon (TOC) content mapping, geographical distribution of thermal maturity (Tmax) data mapping, including evaluation and interpretation of Rock-Eval parameters in the study area, the Montney Formation kerogen is indicative of a pervasively matured petroleum system in the study area.

Geochemical Characteristics of the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in Sichuan Basin, China and its Significance for Hydrocarbon Accumulation

The alternative development of coal-bearing hydrocarbon source rocks and low-porosity and low-permeability tight sandstone reservoirs of the Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Sichuan Basin is favorable for near-source hydrocarbon accumulation. The natural gas composition of the Xujiahe Formation in the Sichuan Basin is dominated by hydrocarbon gases, of which the methane content is80.16%-98.67%. Typically, the C2^＋ content is larger than 5% in main wet gas. The dry gas is mainly distributed in the western and northern regions of the basin. The non-hydrocarbon gases mainly contain nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and helium, with a total content of 〈2%. The carbon isotope ranges of methane and its homologues in natural gas are： δ^13C1 of-43.8‰ to-29.6‰, δ^13C2 of-35.4‰ to-21.5‰, δ^13C3 of-27.6‰ to-19.8‰,and δ^13C4 of-27.7‰ to-18.8‰. δ^13C3〉δ^13C4 occurs in some natural gas with a low evolution degree; such gas is mainly coal-related gas from humic-type source rocks of the Xujiahe Formation. As for the natural gas, δ^2 HCH4 values ranged from-195‰ to-161‰,δ^2 HC2H6 values ranged from-154‰ to-120‰, and δ^2 HC2H8 values ranged from-151‰ to-108‰. The dry coefficient,δ^13C and δ^2 HC2H4 are all positively correlated with the maturity of source rocks. The higher the maturity of source rocks is, the larger the natural gas dry coefficient is and the larger the δ^13C and δ^2 HC2H4 values are, indicative of the characteristic of near-source accumulation. The δ^2 HC2H6 value of natural gas is influenced by paleosalinity to a relatively large extent; the higher the paleosalinity is, the larger the δ^2 HC2H4 value is. The Pr/Ph value of the condensate oil ranged from 1.60 to 3.43, illustrating light oxidization-light reduction and partial-oxidization characteristics of the depositional environment of coal-bearing source rocks of the Xujiahe Formation. The natural gas light hydrocarbon（C5-C7） from the Xujiahe Formation presented two characteristics： the first was the relatively high aromatic hydrocarbon content（19%-32.1%）, which reveals the characteristic of natural gas with humic substances of high-maturity; the second was the low content of aromatic hydrocarbon（0.4%-9.3%）,reflecting water-washing during the accumulation of the natural gas. The reported research outcomes indicate a potential mechanism for natural gas accumulation in the Xujiahe Formation, which will further guide natural gas exploration in this region.

Isotopes (¹³C and ¹⁸O) Geochemistry of Lower Triassic Montney Formation, Northeastern British Columbia, Western Canada

Oxygen isotope (δ18O) serves as paleothermometer, and provides paleotemperature for carbonates. δ18O signature was used to estimate the temperature of fractionation of dolomite and calcite in Montney Formation, empirically calculated to have precipitated, between approximately 13°C to ±33°C during Triassic time in northeastern British Columbia, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). Measurements of stable isotopes (δ13C and δ18O) fractionation, supported by quantitative X-ray diffraction evidence, and whole-rock geochemical characterization of the Triassic Montney Formation indicates the presence of calcite, dolomite, magnesium, carbon and other elements. Results from isotopic signature obtained from bulk calcite and bulk dolomite from this study indicates depleted δ13CPDB (-2.18‰ to -8.46‰) and depleted δ18OPDB (-3.54‰ to -16.15‰), which is interpreted in relation to oxidation of organic matter during diagenesis. Diagenetic modification of dolomitized very fine-grained, silty-sandstone of the Montney Formation may have occurred in stages of progressive oxidation and reduction reactions involving chemical elements such as Fe, which manifest in mineral form as pyrite, particularly, during early burial diagenesis. Such mineralogical changes evident in this study from petrography and SEM, includes cementation, authigenic quartz overgrowth and mineral replacement involving calcite and dolomite, which are typical of diagenesis. High concentration of chemical elements in the Montney Formation?-Ca and Mg indicates dolomitization. It is interpreted herein, that calcite may have been precipitated into the interstitial pore space of the intergranular matrix of very fine-grained silty-sandstone of the Montney Formation as cement by a complex mechanism resulting in the interlocking of grains.

Genesis of the low-permeability reservoir bed of upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in Xinchang gas field,western Sichuan Depression

The genesis of a reservoir is a result of the combined action of deposition, diagenesis, tectonic reworking, and interaction of rock and fluid and the evolutionary environment. We discuss the genetic and evolution mechanism of a low-permeability reservoir bed of the Xujiahe Formation in the western Sichuan Depression on the basis of the study of diagenesis, diagenetic reservoir facies and the diagenetic evolution sequence. The research indicated that this reservoir bed can be divided into five types of diagenetic reservoir facies, namely strong dissolution, chlorite-lined intergranular pores, compaction and pressure solution, carbonate cementation and secondary quartz increase. There are, however, just two diagenetic reservoir facies which provide low-permeability reservoir beds, namely strong dissolution and chlorite-lined intergranular pores. We also analyzed their diagenetic evolution sequences and the origin of the low-permeability reservoir bed. Besides, it was also indicated that the composition and structure of sandstones, types of sedimentary microfacies, diagenesis history as well as the tectonic reworking in later periods are the main factors controlling the formation of the low-permeability reservoir bed. The above- mentioned factors establish the foundation for the forecasting the distribution of high quality reservoir beds.

Characterization of favorable lithofacies in tight sandstone reservoirs and its significance for gas exploration and exploitation: A case study of the 2nd Member of Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Xinchang area, Sichuan Basin

By using core,logging curves,and experiment data,favorable lithofacies types in the 2 nd Member of Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Xinchang area,Sichuan Basin were classified,standard of the favorable lithofacies was established,planar distribution regularities of the favorable lithofacies were identified,and forming mechanisms of the favorable lithofacies and their control effect on production were examined.(1)The 2 nd Member of Xujiahe Formation has twelve types of lithofacies,among which multiple layer medium-coarse grain sandstone lithofacies,parallel bedding medium-coarse grain sandstone lithofacies,massive bedding medium-coarse grain sandstone lithofacies,inclined bedding medium-coarse grain sandstone lithofacies,and charcoal-bearing medium-coarse grain sandstone lithofacies with better physical properties and higher gas content are favorable lithofacies;they feature low gamma,low neutron porosity,low resistivity,and high acoustic travel time on logging curves.(2)The sedimentary process controls spatial distribution of sand bodies which are the material basis of the favorable lithofacies;post diagenetic fluids would differentially reconstruct the favorable lithofacies;tectonic activities and abnormal formation pressure made strata slide along the weakness plane,giving rise to fractures in different types of rocks,which can enhance the reservoir permeability significantly.(3)The development degree of favorable lithofacies is a major factor affecting stable production of gas well.

Reconsideration of the sediment characteristics of the second member of the Triassic Xujiahe Formation in Sanhuiba,Huaying Mountain

The second member of the Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Sanhuiba area in Huaying Mountain is an important section of sedimentary delta facies in the Chongqing Tianfu Geological Survey and Training Base. In spite of some initial efforts on its lithology and lithofacies, the existing research is yet to be completed and suffers from contradictory conclusions and inadequate evidence. Starting from the sedimentary microfaeies types and cyclic features, we analyzed the vertical sequence of a sedimentary delta model and discovered that this section is a constructional delta deposit. Eight incomplete and asymmetric regressive cycles are marked off, given that frequent erosion surfaces appeared in the section. Based on the analysis of structural characteristics of every monocycle, we summarized the system of cycles, tracts and sequence characteristics of the overall section. In view of this systematic series of cycles, we discussed the features of the syndepositional tectonic movements in the area and conclude that, due to frequent erosion, migration and diversion of a sub-channel branch was brought about by oscillating movements of the crust. In a comparison with neighboring sections, we explored the cause of erosion and the relations between erosion and cycles. This study greatly strengthens existing research and theories, makes an important and comprehensive contribution to geological surveys and training in the area and provides essential suggestions for coal exploration, oil and gas evaluation and in general to exploration and development in the target stratum.

Formation mechanisms and sequence response of authigenic grain-coating chlorite: evidence from the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin, China

Authigenic grain-coating chlorite is widely distributed in the clastic rocks of many sedimentary basins around the world. These iron minerals were mainly derived from flocculent precipitates formed when rivers flow into the ocean, especially in deltaic environments with high hydrodynamic conditions. At the same time, sandstone sequences with grain-coating chlorites also tend to have relatively high glauconite and pyrite content. EPMA composition analysis shows that glauconites with ‘‘high Al and low Fe’’ content indicate slightly to semi-saline marine environments with weak alkaline and weakly reducing conditions. By analyzing the chlorite-containing sandstone bodies of the southern Sichuan Xujiahe Formation, this study found that chlorite was mainly distributed in sedimentary microfacies, including underwater distributary channels, distributary channels, shallow lake sandstone dams, and mouth bars. Chlorite had a tendency to form in the upper parts of sandstone bodies with signs of increased base level, representing the influence of marine（lacustrine）transgression. This is believed to be influenced by megamonsoons in the Middle and Upper Yangtze Region during the Late Triassic Epoch. During periods of abundant precipitation, river discharges increased and more Fe particulates flowed into the ocean（lake）. In the meantime,increases or decreases in lake level were only affected byprecipitation for short periods of time. The sedimentary environment shifted from weakly oxidizing to weak alkaline, weakly reducing conditions as sea level increased, and Fe-rich minerals as authigenic chlorite and glauconite began to form and deposit.

Tectono–sedimentary Evolution of the Late Triassic Xujiahe Formation in the Sichuan Basin

The early stage of Sichuan Basin formation was controlled by the convergence of three major Chinese continental blocks during the Indosinian orogeny that include South China,North China,and Qiangtang blocks.Although the Late Triassic Xujiahe Formation is assumed to represent the commencement of continental deposition in the Sichuan Basin,little research is available on the details of this particular stratum.Sequence stratigraphic analysis reveals that the Xujiahe Formation comprises four third-order depositional sequences.Moreover,two tectono-sedimentary evolution stages,deposition and denudation,have been identified.Typical wedge-shaped geometry revealed in a cross section of the southern Sichuan Basin normal to the Longmen Shan fold-thrust belt is displayed for the entire Xujiahe Formation.The depositional extent did not cover the Luzhou paleohigh during the LST1 to LST2 （LST,TST and HST mean Iowstand,transgressive and highstand systems tracts,1,2,3 and 4 represent depositional sequence 1,2,3 and 4）,deltaic and fluvial systems fed sediments from the Longmen Shan belt,Luzhou paleohigh,Hannan dome,and Daba Shan paleohigh into a foreland basin with a centrally located lake.The forebulge of the western Sichuan foreland basin was located southeast of the Luzhou paleohigh after LST2.According to the principle of nonmarine sequence stratigraphy and the lithology of the Xujiahe Formation,four thrusting events in the Longmen Shan fold-thrust belt were distinguished,corresponding to the basal boundaries of sequences 1,2,3,and 4.The northern Sichuan Basin was tilted after the deposition of sequence 3,inducing intensive erosion of sequences 3 and 4,and formation of wedge-shaped deposition geometry in sequence 4 from south to north.The tilting probably resulted from small-scale subduction and exhumation of the western South China block during the South and North China block collision.

Hydrocarbon generation and storage mechanisms of deepwater shelf shales of Ordovician Wufeng Formation–Silurian Longmaxi Formation in Sichuan Basin, China

As the hydrocarbon generation and storage mechanisms of high quality shales of Upper Ordovician Wufeng Formation– Lower Silurian Longmaxi Formation remain unclear, based on geological conditions and experimental modelling of shale gas formation, the shale gas generation and accumulation mechanisms as well as their coupling relationships of deep-water shelf shales in Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation of Sichuan Basin were analyzed from petrology, mineralogy, and geochemistry. The high quality shales of Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation in Sichuan Basin are characterized by high thermal evolution, high hydrocarbon generation intensity, good material base, and good roof and floor conditions;the high quality deep-water shelf shale not only has high biogenic silicon content and organic carbon content, but also high porosity coupling. It is concluded that:(1) The shales had good preservation conditions and high retainment of crude oil in the early times, and the shale gas was mainly from cracking of crude oil.(2) The biogenic silicon(opal A) turned into crystal quartz in early times of burial diagenesis, lots of micro-size intergranular pores were produced in the same time;moreover, the biogenic silicon frame had high resistance to compaction, thus it provided the conditions not only for oil charge in the early stage, but also for formation and preservation of nanometer cellular-like pores, and was the key factor enabling the preservation of organic pores.(3) The high quality shale of Wufeng–Longmaxi Formation had high brittleness, strong homogeneity, siliceous intergranular micro-pores and nanometer organic pores, which were conducive to the formation of complicated fissure network connecting the siliceous intergranular nano-pores, and thus high and stable production of shale gas.

Model of Universe as Described by Dynamic Universe Model

In this paper we will see the model of Universe according to Dynamic Universe Model of Cosmology by visualizing various processes that are happening in the Universe as per experimental evidences. For simplifying the matter here, we will see in part 1: about the Galaxy life cycle, where the birth and death of Galaxies discussed. Probably Universe gives guidance for the movement of Galaxies. We call this Part 1: Thinking and Reproducing Universe or Mindless Universe? (Galaxy life cycle). We see every day Sun, Stars, Galaxies etc., dissipating enormous energy in the form of radiation by the way of fusion of Hydrogen to helium. So after sometime all the Hydrogen is spent and Universe will die, is it not? … Dynamic Universe Model says that the energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation passing grazingly near any gravitating mass changes in frequency and finally will convert into neutrinos (mass). Hence Dynamic Universe Model proposes another process where energy will be converted back into matter and the cycle energy to mass to energy continues, sustaining the Universe to maintain this present status for ever in this form something like a Steady state model without any expansion. This we will see in Part 2: Energy - Mass - Energy Cycle. After converting energy into mass “how various elements are formed and where they are formed?” will be next logical question. Dynamic Universe Model says that these various particles change into higher massive particles or may get bombarded into stars or planets and various elements are formed. Here we bifurcate the formation of elements into 6 processes. They are for Elementary particles and elements generated in frequency changing process, By Cosmic rays, By Small stars, By Large Stars, By Super Novae and Manmade elements By Neutron Stars. This we will discuss in Part 3: Nucleosynthesis.

Factors controlling the development of tight sandstone reservoirs in the Huagang Formation of the central inverted structural belt in Xihu sag, East China Sea Basin

By means of thin section analysis, zircon U-Pb dating, scanning electron microscopy, electron probe, laser micro carbon and oxygen isotope analysis, the lithologic features, diagenetic environment evolution and controlling factors of the tight sandstone reservoirs in the Huagang Formation of Xihu sag, East China Sea Basin were comprehensively studied. The results show that: the sandstones of the Huagang Formation in the central inverted structural belt are poor in physical properties, dominated by feldspathic lithic quartz sandstone, high in quartz content, low in matrix, kaolinite and cement contents, and coarse in clastic grains;the acidic diagenetic environment formed by organic acids and meteoric water is vital for the formation of secondary pores in the reservoirs;and the development and distribution of the higher quality reservoirs in the tight sandstones of the Huagang Formation are controlled by sediment source, sedimentary facies belt, abnormal overpressure and diagenetic environment evolution. Sediment provenance and dominant sedimentary facies led to favorable initial physical properties of the sandstones in the Huagang Formation, which is the prerequisite for development of reservoirs with better quality later. Abnormal high pressure protected the primary pores, thus improving physical properties of the reservoirs in the Huagang Formation. Longitudinally, due to the difference in diagenetic environment evolution, the high-quality reservoirs in the Huagang Formation are concentrated in the sections formed in acidic diagenetic environment. Laterally, the high-quality reservoirs are concentrated in the lower section of the Huagang Formation with abnormal high pressure in the middle-northern part;but concentrated in the upper section of Huagang Formation shallower in burial depth in the middle-southern part.

Diagenesis-porosity evolution and“sweet spot”distribution of low permeability reservoirs:A case study from Oligocene Zhuhai Formation in Wenchang A sag,Pear River Mouth Basin,northern South China Sea

The characteristics of low permeability reservoirs and distribution of sweet spots in the Oligocene Zhuhai Formation of Wenchang A sag, Pearl River Basin were investigated by core observation and thin section analysis. The study results show that there develop the fine, medium and coarse sandstone reservoirs of tidal flat–fan delta facies, which are of mostly low permeability and locally medium permeability. There are two kinds of pore evolution patterns: oil charging first and densification later, the reservoirs featuring this pattern are mainly in the third member of Zhuhai Formation between the south fault zone and the sixth fault zone, and the pattern of densification first and gas charging later is widespread across the study area. Strong compaction and local calcium cementation are the key factors causing low permeability of the reservoirs in the Zhuhai Formation. Thick and coarse grain sand sedimentary body is the precondition to form "sweet spot" reservoirs. Weak compaction and cementation, dissolution, early hydrocarbon filling and authigenic chlorite coating are the main factors controlling formation of "sweet spot" reservoir. It is predicted that there develop between the south fault and sixth fault zones the Class Ⅰ "sweet spot" in medium compaction zone, Class Ⅱ "sweet spot" in nearly strong compaction zone, Class Ⅲ "sweet spot" reservoir in the nearly strong to strong compaction zone with oil charging at early stage, and Class IV "sweet spot" reservoir in the strong compaction and authigenic chlorite coating protection zone in the sixth fault zone.

Formation patterns of Chang 9 oil reservoir in Triassic Yanchang Formation, Ordos Basin, NW China

Based on analysis of main controlling factors of Chang 9, the source rock, driving force of migration, migration and accumulation modes, reservoir forming stages and model and enrichment law of Chang 9 reservoir were examined. The study showed that the oil of Chang 9 reservoir in the Jiyuan and Longdong(Eastern Gansu) areas came primarily from the source rock of Chang 7 Member, but the oil of Chang 9 reservoir in the Zhidan area came primarily from the source rock of Chang 9 Member. There developed lithologic-structural oil reservoirs in Gufengzhuang-Mahuangshan area in northwest Jiyuan, structural-lithologic oil reservoirs in east Jiyuan, and lithologic reservoirs in Huachi–Qingcheng area and Zhidan area. The overpressure of Chang 7 Member was the driving force of oil migration. The burial history showed that Chang 9 Member experienced two stages of reservoir forming, the reservoir formed in the Late Jurassic was smaller in charging scope and scale, and the Early Cretaceous was the period when the source rock generated oil and gas massively and the Chang 9 reservoir came into being. Along with the tectonic movements, Chang 7 bottom structure turned from high in the west and lower in the East in the sedimentary stage to high in the east and lower in the west in the hydrocarbon accumulation stage and at last to gentle western-leaning monoclinal structure at present. In Early Cretaceous, the Chang 7 bottom structure was the lowest in the west of Huanxian-Huachi-Wuqi-Dingbian areas, so the oil migrated laterally towards the higher positions around after entering the reservoir. In the main reservoir forming period, Chang 7 bottom had an ancient anticline in Mahuangshan-Hongjingzi area of west Jiyuan, controlling the oil reservoir distribution in west Jiyuan.