春秋立言的观念和形态探析

春秋“立言”的观念和形态并非与后世理解的著书立说完全相同。立言的观念产生于春秋时期的君子文化,而随着礼乐文化的衰落,君子立言逐渐走向自觉,君子意识到立言的作用,对言论的本质进行思考,并树立优秀言论的标准,君子之言也渐渐作为权威话语被人征引。“言”“语”类文献的编撰使得君子之言得以流传,使得君子之言由“言传”逐渐转向“文传”,“言”“语”类文献也成为春秋立言的一种基本文体形态。

Preliminary Remarks on Transmission and Communication in Ancient Greece： A Case Study in Mediology

The scope of this paper lies primarily on the recognition of what Debray called transmission and communication, however, in this article exclusively with regard to the Ancient Greek literature and culture. Transmission understood as the process in which ＂agencies and human actors transmit the ideas in historical and diachronic order＂ and communication implying the ＂synchronic interchange by linguistic impact between senders and receivers＂ are presented as two paths in which cultural messages are introduced and transmitted by means of ＂literary production＂. Early Greek literature, which was based on the oral performance and mirrored the language in its prototypical form, seemed to be the main source of information for the reconstruction of the two above processes. In the proposed model, the new understanding of the media introduced by Debray plays the most important role, because in the theory of ＂cultural transmission＂, the medium can be not only ＂a symbolic process, a social code, a material device＂ but also a human being. Therefore, on the basis of this theory, mediology can be described as the way of 4M： message, medium, milieu, and mediation.

A Re-investigation of the Concept of Word Classes Through a Categorization Approach

The concept of word classes （parts of speech） has always generated controversy among linguists. The earlier Prescriptive and Descriptive Schools might have set the pace for this controversy but the present dilemma is much deeper. Learners and even teachers are sometimes at quandary as to how to proof that a particular word belongs to a particular class. This is because a word may sometimes belong to several classes, in context as in the word ＂watch＂ which can belong to different classes. This paper therefore tries to provide answers to the problem of word class classification by using a morphological and syntactical evidence to prove that English words follow a particular range of inflections and belong to strictly ordered particular categories and do not change their class arbitrarily. This is in line with the natural perfect order of homogeneity in creation which precludes a specie from merging effectively with another specie without having to undergo some fundamental changes. Other variables were also looked into and it was concluded that teachers and learners as well, can rely on this sub-categorization approach as a reliable paradigm for their assumptions concerning word classes.

Human Dignity and Human Rights： A Universal Language for Bioethics

One of the aims of the Universal Declaration on B ioethics and Human Rights （UNESCO） is to ＂promote respect for human dignity and protect human rights＂,l Here are two overarching principles at work, ensuring that the biomedical sciences fulfill their task within an ethical framework. The principle of respect for human dignity is a universal moral concept, meant to be applied in human encounters. Protecting human rights underscores the legal principle of not only affirming the fundamental equality of all human beings, but equally safeguarding it. These two principles are universally defined, but are ordinarily specified by the particular value system of individual cultures in which they are employed. It is within such particular cultural application that their relevance stands out. The thrust of this paper is that, since principles are general action guides, they actually constitute a universal language for the analysis and evaluation of all human conduct. However, there is also recognition of the fact that moral contexts vary from culture to culture, and that while the scope of the two principles above is not restricted by any particular culture, it is indeed those cultural specifics of each moral context that constitute the framework within which the principles become operational. As general action guides, I will argue that these principles lack moral relevance outside of those particular cultural settings wherein they are contextualized. Without such relevance, these principles become meaningless mantras. I will further show that such principles do not merely uphold values informed by particular cultures, but they are an embodiment of values inherent to human nature in general. Consequently, these principles do not just serve as instruments for addressing issues peculiar to ＂Western bioethics＂ or any other particular cultural setting in an exclusive sense, but are also used for moderating bioethics discourse that transcend particular cultural boundaries. I will further explain that such universal discourse is potentially instructive with regards to how cultural universals are viewed in relation to the cultural particulars, and that this discourse essentially becomes a lingua franca for cross-cultural dialogue in bioethics.

Terms and Metaphors in TasawwufDiscourse

This paper treats metaphors and terminology or the discourse of tasawwuf Having in mind that tasawwuf is a discipline developed in the scope of Islamic tradition and that its focus is on the esoteric dimension of the Qur＇an （ta wil）, which relates to the cognition of the highest rank, an approach to such a discourse needs special effort, both intellectual and spiritual. The language of literature belonging to either theoretical or practical tasawwuf is highly symbolic： theoretical tasawwuf deals with ontology and discusses God, world, and human being, while pragmatic tasawwuftries, just as the ethics, to change human being, that is, to ennoble him. Because of its specific way of presentation and its specific discourse, a communication with that discourse is determined by the knowledge of its symbolism, its terminology and, generally, its professional terminology.

Understanding IT Artefacts with Language

Every day we experience relationships with artefacts, which describe material objects made by humans in order to reach a goal and exploit the human feature to plan ahead. Artefacts bring together cognitive evolution and technical enhancement. Although artefacts are conceived as technical, we are now facing a relationship with Information Technology （IT） artefacts. IT artefacts include both hardware and software, as a two-sided entity. The definition of IT artefact corresponds with the Saussurean linguistic sign： a two-sided entity constituted by the signifier （hardware） and the signified （software）. I claim that IT artefacts share this ontological trait with the linguistic sign. I will show that IT artefacts are the result of design and planning, while language--which is an institution--is not the fabrication of one human but linked to collective human activity.

Study on the Policy of Embodying Language Difference between Chinese and Western Culture

For centuries, cross-cultural exchange activities throughout history, language and culture from the communication is an integral part of the contact. For the entire human history, cross-cultural communication is not strange. It plays an important role in studying different languages. Language is the carrier of culture and the main manifestation of culture. Language is developing with the development of a nation, it is an integral part of national culture, history, customs and local customs and practices, the nation＇s culture and social customs are also in the national language to show. The different historical background and development process leads to great difference exists in Western languages. With mutual understanding and deepen, the conflict in western culture are increasing. Language is the primary from of communication. And the use of language and culture are closely related. So ＂differences between Chinese culture and Western culture in English language＂ has become the important topic of intercultural communication.

The Unlikely Objects of 吃（Chi）

Drawing on cognitive linguistic theories, this study investigates the various meanings of the Chinese verb 吃（chi） and the types of objects that it takes. It is concluded that the many meanings of吃 are organized in a radial network, with the primary meaning at the center and extended meanings at the periphery and that extended meanings are derived from, and thus can be traced back to, the primary meaning. This study also suggests that the productivity of the 吃 ＋ object construction is affected by the meaning of 吃, the interpretation of its objects, as well as social and linguistic convention.