城镇化进程中农民向“非”农的转化

走中国特色的城镇化道路是全面建设小康社会的必由之路,推进城镇化应与合理转移农村富余劳动力相结合,农民在城镇化的进程中逐步向“非”农转化,要完全实现这一过程,还面临着一些制度上和观念上的障碍,有待在改革进程中逐步加以解决。

Controlling effects of forest belts on non-point source pollution of agricultural lands in Taihu Lake area, China

Taihu Lake area is one of the most developed areas in agricultural production. Application of fertilizers and pesticides in large quantities greatly aggravate environmental pollution of this area, and water pollution has worsened to an unbearable condition. Two sampling farms (respectively 1 hm2) under rape-rice rotation and wheat-rice rotation were selected as studied ecosystem and a 5-yr-old Poplar forest and 8-yr-old Metasequoia forest were chosen in the selected areas. By collecting samples of Nitrogen, Phosphorus in water, crops and underground of forest, the transfer and loss of N and P (main water pollutants) in faming ecosystem were studied, and the effects of forest belts on non-point source pollution of agricultural lands was analyzed. The results indicated that the transfer and loss of N and P vary with means of rotation, types of crops and the amount of fertilizer application. Buffering forest belts betweens farmlands and ditches can effectively stop and purify such elements as N and P in soil runoffs, thus controlling non-point source pollution of agricultural lands. When the width ratio of farmland to forest belt is 100 to 40, 50.05% losing N, 29.37% losing P can be absorbed by forest under rape-rice rotation and 30.98% N, 86.73% P can be absorbed by forest under wheat-rice rotation. When the width ratio of farmland to forest belt is 150 to 40, 33.37% losing N, 19.58% losing P can be absorbed by the forest under rape-rice rotation, and under wheat-rice rotation 20.65% lost N and 57.82% lost P can be absorbed. There is only some purification effect when the width ration of farmland to forest belt is 200 to 40. Based on model of buffering forest belts, the width ratio of farmland to forest is determined between 100 to 40 and 150 to 40, because it not only can purify water, but also occupy less farmland. It is suggested that Poplars, with the characteristics of fast-growing and high value, are suitable to be planted as shelter-forest in Taihu Lake Watershed.

Water Pollution Situation and Impacts in Rural China

With the development of national economics, water pollution is becoming a critical problem in rural China. This research presented a brief view of water pollution situation in rural areas of China in terms of water shortage, water-pollutant sources, eutrophication of water bodies and pollution development in temporal scale. Analysis was conducted on the negative effects of water pollution on human health, agricultural plantation and animal husbandry. Subsequently, some suggestions were proposed for wastewater treatment in rural areas.

Impacts of Agricultural Non-point Pollution on Water-source Area in Songhua Dam

[Objective] The aim was to research impacts of agricultural non-point pol- lution on water-source region in Songhua Dam, laying foundation for control of water pollution and scientific protection of water-source region. [Method] Water in Muyang River, lengshui River and Zizania aquatica region were sampled to measure content of pollutants in water and conclude relation between water contamination and agri- cultural non-point pollution to find the major cause of pollution. [Result] Organic pollu- tant in Muyang River was higher; N and P contents in Lengshui River were higher; the measured indices in Zizania aquatica region excessively exceeded related stan- dard. [Conclusion] The chemical fertilizers and pesticides are the toxic materials lead- ing to water contamination and constitute a major cause of pollution in Songhua Dam water-source region. Agricultural non-point pollution should be controlled in a scientific way.

Generation of the data required by Conservation Model

Remote sensing techniques and geographic information systems offer a good means of collecting and manipulating the data required for assessing conservation practices. A method for automatic generation of most of the data required by the Agricultural Non point Source erosion model is developed from three sources:(1) file with contour lines from the topographic maps(TM), (2) soil mapping units from the soil surveys, and (3)land cover from land sat TM image classification.

Analysis of the Impacts of Nongovernmental Economy on Nonagricultural Employment Growth in China

The importance of solving the employment problems by nongovernmental economy in China has aroused the concern of many scholars widely. However, few literatures could be found to deal with the impacts on nonagricultural employment growth in China by nongovernmental economy from several levels such as the whole nation, urban and rural. Based on the research accessed on the relationships between nongovernmental economy and em-ployment, the impacts of the development of nongovernmental economy on non-agricultural employment growth in China are emphasized in this paper. Taking time series data of non-agricultural employment in China’s different economy types in 1992–2005 as study objects, by establishing econometric re-gression models, some meaningful points are found as follows, the impacts of nongovernmental economy on the nonagricultural employment in either national or urban-rural level are rather sig-nificant although their impacts’ degrees are different. Based on the research findings above, some countermeasures are proposed to accelerate the nongovernmental economic development and im-prove its ability to absorb nonagricultural employment.

Effect of Agricultural Land Use Changes on Soil Nutrient Use Efficiency in an Agricultural Area,Beijing,China

Agricultural land use and management practices may affect soil properties,which play a critical role in sustaining crop production.Since the late 1970s,several new agricultural land use types had been introduced in the rural areas of China.The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of these land use changes on the soil properties,nu-trient absorption rate,and nutrient use economic efficiency ratio in an agricultural area of Beijing.Specifically,the cropland,the orchard and the vegetable field were examined.Results of this study suggest that land use and farming management practices significantly affect the content of soil organic carbon (SOC),total nitrogen (TN),total phos-phorus (TP),and available phosphorus in the surface layer of 0-25 cm (p<0.05) in the Yanqing Basin,northwestern Beijing.Soil nutrients in each agricultural land use type decrease rapidly with the increasing soil depth.Orchard and vegetable field tend to have higher soil nutrients than the cropland does.However,the soil nutrient-absorption rate (NAR) of the orchard and vegetable field is lower than that of the cropland,even though orchard and vegetable field may provide much higher economic benefit.While increasing SOC,TN,and TP in the orchard and vegetable field by intensive farming may be a valuable option to improve soil quality,potential increase in the risk of nutrient loss,or agricultural non-point source pollution can be a tradeoff if the intensive practices are not managed appropriately.

The impacts of agricultural and rural economic policy system on agricultural non-point source pollution in China

Agricultural and rural economic policy system is one main driving force for the evolvement of agricultural Non-Point Source （NPS） pollution. In this paper, the main policies that influence agricultural NPS pollution are chosen, and a method to evaluate the impacts of agricultural and rural economic policy system on agricultural NPS pollution is brought forward. According to this, the questions about how and to what degree the policy system influence on agricultural NPS pollution are discussed.

Bio-Economic Strategy to Combat Non-Point Pollution in China

While non-point pollution from agriculture has become an increasingly serious problem in China, some progress has been made in studying the causal biophysical processes. However, few studies have assessed the economic consequences of non-point pollution in China or the policy options that could be employed to combat it. In this work a sustainable strategy to control non-point pollution from crop production, which involved taxing excessive inputs of irrigation water and fertilizer, was proposed. The approach taken to assess these measures combined biophysical and economic models,having a trade-off between economic returns and an improved environment. A proven and practical spatially referenced water and nutrient management model was used to determine the quantities of excessive irrigation water and fertilizer for specific soil and land use. Also, a set of indicators were proposed for evaluating the effects of agricultural economic output and agricultural practices on the environment.

Control of Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution by Natural Wetland Management

Reduction ofnonpoint source pollutants, principally sediment and nutrients moving from cultivated fields to surface waters, is a major challenge. Remnants of once-extensive natural wetlands occur across the agricultural landscape, and it has been suggested that these areas might be managed to yield improved wetland function in terms of trapping and retention of nonpoint source pollutants. An existing wetland in a severed meander bend cut off in the 1940s from the Coldwater River in Tunica County, MS, USA was modified by the construction of weirs equipped with water control structures. The wetland was a segment o fold river channel about 500 m long and 20 m wide. Inputs to the wetland cell included sporadic flows due to runoff events from about 350 ha of cultivated fields and less frequent but larger flood events from the river. This type of flood event occurred only once during the study. Concentrations of sediment and nutrients in water were generally lower at the downstream end of the wetland cell than in the major inflow, an ephemeral slough. Mean values of turbidity, suspended sediment concentration, and concentrations of filterable and total phosphorus were 25% to 40% lower at the wetland cell discharge weir than in the slough. Mean concentrations of ammonia were 38% lower, but mean nitrate and nitrite concentrations were essentially unchanged by the wetland cell. Comparison of estimated input and output loads during periods when the wetland cell was not flooded by the river indicated that the wetland cell retained about 18% of input suspended sediment, 24% of phosphorus, and 29% of nitrogen input from cultivated fields. Wetland cell sediment and nutrient retention efficiency was treater for drier months, and declined durin~ wetter periods with frequent runoff events.

Controlling Non-Point Source Pollution in Australian Agricultural Systems

The Australian farming sector is continuing to intensify, particularly within 300 km of the east and southern coastlines. In the future there will be fewer and larger farms, which will use more fertilizer, support more stock, grow more monoculture crops, and utilise more marginal soils. This is likely to increase the major environmental impacts of soil degradation, salt, nutrient and sediment contamination of waterways, and greenhouse gas emissions. Australian national water policy continues to focus on land, stream and groundwater salinity issues, although there is now a greater recognition of the importance of nitrogen and phosphorus losses from agriculture. The general philosophy of policy for dealing with non- point source pollution has been towards a voluntary rather than regulatory approach, with state and national governments supporting a range of programs to encourage sustainable agricultural practices. A catchment (watershed) based approach, through the use of integrated catchment management plans, is the primary way that non-point source pollution is addressed at the farm and local level. At an industry level, cotton, grains, meat, sugarcane and dairy amongst others, as well as the Australian fertilizer industry, have responded to non-point source issues by investing in research and development, and developing codes of practice aimed at abating these environmental impacts. Understanding the economic, social, political and cultural contexts of farming as well as the environmental impacts of agriculture are very important in determining the appropriateness of policy responses for Australian farming systems.

Non-agricultural Population, Employment and Land:An Econometric Study in an Integrated Framework

Abstract： his paper explored the relationships among nonagricultural population, employment and land in an integrated framework, taking account of rural-urban land conversion into Carlino-Mills＇s model on the regional growth. Two-stage-leastsquares and ordinary-least-squares were employed. Recent data for district （grade） cities in China （from 1999 to 2005） were used. Our results showed that： first, urban population influenced non-agricultural employment, and vice versa, but the evidence that non-agricultural employment influenced urban population was stronger than the evidence that urban population influenced non-agricultural employment; second, urban population and non-agricultural employment both influenced ruralurban land conversion, but the evidence that urban population influenced rural urban land conversion was more stronger than the evidence that non-agricultural employment did. We also found that： first, the employment from the secondary industry influenced urban population in a positive way, and vice versa, but the employment from the tertiary industry influenced urban population in a negative way, and vice versa; second, the employment from the secondary industry influenced rural-urban land conversion in a positive way, but the employment from the tertiary industry influenced rural-urban land conversion in a negative way. We can conclude that the key of urbanization is to speed up the process of non-agricultural employment, especially the employment from the tertiary industry, which might promote non-agricultural population, employment and land harmoniously.

Rural Water Access and Management Approaches in Southern Africa： Lessons from Namibia and South Africa

Water scarcity is a major problem for Namibia and South Africa as both countries are classified as ＂water stressed＂, based on their per capita water availability which is below the threshold of 1,000-1,666 ma-person^-1.year^-1. Water provision in both countries has traditionally relied on supply-side sources, and the potential for expansion is becoming dim, making efforts towards demand management approaches more feasible. Findings show that CBM （community based management） systems of water points offer an alternative in terms of ownership and self-reliance based on institutional arrangements at community level. However, the CBM system involves some forms of payment for water access, and affordability has become a main challenge, to the extent that some governments are considering the reintroduction of water subsidies for poor rural communities in the near future.

A review of non-agricultural land-use in peri-urbanization area:research progress and perspectives

The peri-urbanization area as a kind of rural-urban interface is changing rapidly ,physical, economlc and social terms. The land use pattern in such area is shifting away from the assumptions of mainstream paradigms to new conceptual landscapes, which leads to a series of problems on economic development and social stabilization. There are many researches on non-agricultural land-use in peri-urbanization area. In this paper both international and domestic research literature is reviewed by dividing six parts. The first part introduces the conception of peri-ur-banization area and its driver factors. Then in the second and the third part, the paper expatiates on the progress in the non-agricultural land-use in peri-urban area on land-use problems in the research area, while the fifth part reviews the integrating ways of non-agricultrual land-use. Finally, recommendations for further study are draw with specific reference to the current and future position of non-agricultural land-use study in peri-urban area.

Community Based Natural Resource Management, Tourism and Poverty Alleviation in Southern Africa： What Works and What Doesn＇t Work

Community based natural resource management （CBNRM） is perhaps the most important tool for driving community and rural development in southern Africa. The paper therefore analyses the CBNRM framework as a strategy for implementing sustainable tourism and poverty alleviation initiatives in Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia. The article specifically underscores the importance of local-level participatory management and utilisation of natural resources in the region. Paying special attention to the previous researches that have been conducted in Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia, the methodological approach employed in the paper centres on critical discourse analysis and review of literatures to highlight the interface existing between CBNRM and rural （tourism） development. The analytical framework of the paper is thus rooted in the Common Property Resource （CPR） theory Overall, the authors argue that tourism, poverty alleviation, rural development, and sustainable natural resource use are linked and interrelated in the process of enhancing community well-being. Findings indicate that CBNRM initiatives have had a significant and positive impact in achieving sustainable tourism, rural development, poverty alleviation, and natural resource management. Specifically, findings show that the CBNRM has contributed to the reduction in wildlife poaching. While other pertinent issues remain, national governments in the three southern African economies need to fully appropriate the benefits that CBNRM offers and improve on them for better implementation of developmental programs.

Farmers＇ Evaluation of NERICA Rice Varieties and Adoption Determinants in Nigeria

Farmers＇ evaluation and analysis of the factors determining the adoption of improved farm technology are essential to elicit what varietals characteristics motivate farmers to adopt or reject improved varieties and the technology. The main objective of the study was to elicit farmers＇ criteria for selecting rice varieties and the factors determining adoption of NERICA varieties in the study areas. The data used for this study were collected from 600 farmers in Ekiti, Kaduna, Nassarawa, Ogun, Ondo, and Taraba States of Nigeria through farming household survey conducted from August to September 2009. The main instruments for data collection were well-structured questionnaires administered in each state. This study utilized descriptive statistics, such as means, frequency and percentages; and Tobit regression model were used to analyze the data collected. The results revealed that field days attendance was very low in the study areas and was similar across states; and this may limit their participation in exchange of ideas and in sharing of knowledge and experience of improved technology. The small farm size and subsequently low output could adversely affect rice production in the country and thus prevent the country from attaining self-sufficiency in rice production. Farmers grow an assortment of both local and improved rice varieties and the most important criteria across the states were high yield, tillering and logging resistance. There was progressive increase in the proportion of land given to NERICA rice cultivation since 2004. This suggests that there is increase in the adoption rate of NERICA varieties across states. Level of formal education, farm size, access to credit, rice income, farm income and level of awareness of NERICA varieties positively and significantly determined NERICA rice adoption. Base on these, we recommend that government should aim at policies geared towards providing incentives to encourage all stakeholders to improve productivity in rice production. Incentives, such as provision of micro credit and implementation of subsidy on inputs like fertilizer and seed, would go a long way in boosting rice production in the study area.

ECONOMIC APPROACH FOR CONTROL AGRICULTURAL NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION IN CHINA

This paper mainly discusses the feasibility to establish economic policy systems for control and management of agricultural nonpoint source pollution in China. The current situation of serious agricultural nonpoint source pollution in China is described firstly. Based on the environmental policy and economics theories, the system of economic policies for control and management of agricultural nonpoint source pollution is designed in this paper. This system includes the policy objective, the designing principle and the methods. The key issues include pollution charge, inputs tax for restriction, subsides for induction and incentive, effluent trading for least cost reduction. The emphases are optimized on inputs tax and agricultural chemical tax permit under complete information, as well as sub-optimized inputs tax under incomplete information, subsides for farm due to positive and negative externality. The functions and suitability of the policies are also analyzed in the paper. According to the field experiment results and other relating economic data in watershed of the Chaohe River, Beijing, some economic approaches to reducing agricultural nonpoint source pollution are proposed. The main idea is to encourage and support the farmers to improve their farming way, and to implement the policy of castigating charge simultaneously. The feasibility of the policies are analyzed with consideration of economy, technology and institution. It is concluded that the economic policies are necessary and feasible.

Impact of Africa Regional Food Security Program on Nigerian Farmers： The Case of National Special Program for Food Security

This paper examined the impact of National Special Program for Food Security （NSPFS） on the beneficiaries through a qualitative measurement of the food security status of the beneficiaries. A food insecurity index was estimated to measure the well-being of the beneficiaries as affected by the impact of the program. Beneficiaries were classified into four categories： food secure （41%）, food insecure without hunger （46%）, food insecure with moderate hunger （11%）, and food insecure with severe hunger （2%）. Perceptions of beneficiaries were measured. In conclusion, the program has had a positive impact and enhanced food security among the Nigerian beneficiaries. It is not without its short comings which include delayed and untimely disbursement of funds and lack of output markets, irrigation facilities, production inputs and adequate training on technology know-how. The default rate and number of debtors remain high among beneficiaries. Efforts should be made to correct the short comings to improve the effectiveness of the program and justify the huge financial resources that have been committed.

Moving beyond Component Research in Mountain Regions: Operationalizing Systems Integration at Farm and Landscape Scales

Most research in support of agricultural development and natural resource management in densely settled mountain ecosystems continues to emphasize component over system-level goals. Research by plant breeders, foresters and animal scientists is generally designed to maximize the yield of products within their particular area of expertise (edible plant parts, tree products and livestock products, respectively), while soil scientists aim largely to increase soil nutrient stocks. At landscape level the same dynamic holds within the agronomic sciences, while water engineers work independently to conserve water through its isolation from broader landscape dynamics, and other common property resources remain largely ignored. Opportunities to foster positive synergies between system components, and to integrate livelihood with conservation goals, are generally missed. This paper presents experiences of the African Highlands Initiative, an ecoregional program of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and a network of the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), in operationalizing integrated research at farm and landscape scale. Following a discussion of the shortcomings of the conventional research paradigm that beg for strongerintegration and a review of the contributions of extant research paradigms that help us move in the right direction, the paper lays a conceptual foundation for integrated research. System components at farm and landscape level are delineated, and this somewhat arbitrary conceptual partitioning of agroecological systems shown to influence the current research paradigm as well as the partitioning of institutional mandates. Diverse meanings of systems integration are then discussed to illustrate the synergies that might be built into agricultural and natural resource research programs. The distinction between the logic of maximization and optimization is then utilized to distinguish between component and “system-level” goals. This conceptual overview is followed by several case studies to illustrate how these concepts can guide the formulation of integrated research objectives, methods and outputs at farm and landscape scale. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of this alternative research paradigm for the structure, function and skill base of national and international agricultural research systems.

Evaluation of Drought and High Temperature Resistances in Cowpea （Vigna unguiculata （L.） Walpers） for Sahel, Africa

Physiological responses were studied in temperature-controlled glass house at Okinawa, Japan to evaluate drought and high temperature resistances of cowpea cultivar/strains for Sahel, Africa. Four drought-tolerant cowpea cultivar/strains （cv. TVu-11986; TVu-11979; IT-96D-604 and Dan Ilia）, and three sensible strains （cv. IT96K-238-3, IT96K-231-1 and TVu-7778） were grown in pots and imposed to drought （soil content; 9.7±1.9%（w/w））, high （30/26℃, day/night, 12/12 hour）, normal （27/23℃, control） and low （24/20℃） temperature conditions after flowering. Plant fresh weight reduced 80%, 26% and 1% by dry, high and low temperature, respectively. Stem diameter decreased 32% and 2% by dry and low temperature, respectively, but increased 5% by high temperature. Difference between the drought tolerant and sensible cultivars/strains, pre-evaluated by IITA, was explained by relationship between stem diameter and plant fresh weight with 77% of reliability. The 35% of misclassification were due to misjudgment of drought tolerant as sensible in dry plot. The stem diameter highly correlated with all parts of plant weight in all regimes except in dry treatment. Difference of the classification between IITA and our results may cause different survival strategy against drought. The cultivars/strains, evaluated as drought tolerant by IITA, might fatten up at early stage, and could avoid from drought at latter growing stage.