The present study examines the four core concepts that underpin the various theories of cultivation of East Asian Confucian philosophy： self （ji,已）, cultivation （xiu, 修）, transformation （hua, 化）, and nurture...The present study examines the four core concepts that underpin the various theories of cultivation of East Asian Confucian philosophy： self （ji,已）, cultivation （xiu, 修）, transformation （hua, 化）, and nurture （yang,餋）. The discussion is divided into six sections. The first section, the introduction, explains the significance of the issue in question. The second section examines the substantial notion of ＂self＂ as expounded in the Confucian intellectual tradition and the corresponding concept of selthood or personhood. Confucianism stresses that （1） personal selthood is based on the freedom of subjectivity （subjective volition）, and （2） society＇s values and norms originate in this freedom of subjectivity. The third section discusses the functional concept of cultivation, focusing on the fact that in Confucian theories the terms ＂cultivation＂ and ＂body＂ are always combined to form the concept of ＂self-cultivation.＂ Moreover, Confucian thinkers tend to discuss the effort of self-cultivation in the context of a body-mind continuum. Indeed, they often use orientational metaphors in order to describe the efforts entailed by cultivation. The fourth section analyzes the linguistic setting and context of the functional concept of transformation within Confucian philosophy of the concrete self. The term ＂transformation＂ indicates clearly that Confucian philosophy is a transformative philosophy. The fifth section analyzes the functional concept of nurture, stressing that Confucius＇ two greatest followers, Mencius and Xunzi, represent two opposed approaches to nurturing. Meneius stresses that one should undertake the effort of ＂nurturing qi,＂ that is, produce culture through natural cultivation, while Xunzi advocates artificially instilling culture in order to discipline, tame, and order nature. Mencius and Xunzi both turn to the container metaphor in their discussions of self-cultivation. The article concludes that the various cultivation activities advocated by these two disparate Confucians are based on two assumptions： （1） the self coincides with the physical body, and （2） the physical self is steeped in and interactive with the cultural values of society. In sum, the functional concept of self-cultivation is an important pillar of Confucian theories of self-cultivation.展开更多
Condemned by Mencius （ca.372-289 BCE） as selfishness （weiwo, 为我）, Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy in China is traditionally depicted as a philosophy of egoism and hedonism. In contrast, Yang Zhu （fl.ca.370-350...Condemned by Mencius （ca.372-289 BCE） as selfishness （weiwo, 为我）, Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy in China is traditionally depicted as a philosophy of egoism and hedonism. In contrast, Yang Zhu （fl.ca.370-350 BCE） is described as an ＂early liberal or individualist＂ hero in the Western Discussion of Chinese Philosophy. Yang Zhu may not be a liberal or individualist hero as portrayed by the West, but surely he should not be depicted as a promoter of egoism as Mencius did. Both John Emerson and A.C. Graham are probably right when they claimed that Yang Zhu was a revolutionary thinker of his own time; and ＂Yang Zhu＇s intervention for the Chinese thinking world had provoked a metaphysical crisis which had threatened the basic assumptions of Confucianism and Mohism and set them into a new course＂ （A.C. Graham 1978）. From my reading, Yang Zhu＇s influence on Chinese philosophy had been and will be even greater, although his philosophy as a whole was not practiced by Chinese society in the past due to the dominance of Confucianism. Yet as the first person who clearly emphasized nourishing of life for individuals and the first theory that rooted morality into xing （性, human nature）, Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy had indeed through history made a huge contribution to Chinese nurturing life tradition, and had great potential in providing inspiration to modern moral thinking. Many discussions initiated or developed by Yang Zhu and his followers have influenced both Confucianism and Daoism profoundly. His idea of nourishing life was not only inherited and developed by Zhuangzi and later Daoist religion from life preservation perspective, but also by Mencius and Xunzi from moral cultivation perspective. As a doctrine that has shown more and more relevance to modern society, people can find many inspirations from Yang Zhu＇s answer to the following questions： What is the aim of human life？ What is the right attitude toward life and death？ What is human nature？ What is the relationship between life nourishment and individual freedom？ Why nourishing one＇s own life should be as important as nourishing that of others？ What is the difference between humans and animals？ Why living a natural life is so important for human beings？ Based on materials collected from various Chinese sources directly related to Yang Zhu＇s school, especially the chapter entitled as ＂Yang Zhu＂ from the book of Liezi, this paper will explore essential features of Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy and its relevance to modern society. As ＂guiji＂ （贵已, cherishing oneself） is the core of Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy, discussion of this paper will focus on what Yang Zhu＇s ＂guiji＂ means, why Yang Zhu＇s ＂guiji＂ is not ＂weiwo＂ （为我, for oneself）, and how Yang Zhu＇s ＂guiji＂ yangsheng is relevant to modern society.展开更多
文摘The present study examines the four core concepts that underpin the various theories of cultivation of East Asian Confucian philosophy： self （ji,已）, cultivation （xiu, 修）, transformation （hua, 化）, and nurture （yang,餋）. The discussion is divided into six sections. The first section, the introduction, explains the significance of the issue in question. The second section examines the substantial notion of ＂self＂ as expounded in the Confucian intellectual tradition and the corresponding concept of selthood or personhood. Confucianism stresses that （1） personal selthood is based on the freedom of subjectivity （subjective volition）, and （2） society＇s values and norms originate in this freedom of subjectivity. The third section discusses the functional concept of cultivation, focusing on the fact that in Confucian theories the terms ＂cultivation＂ and ＂body＂ are always combined to form the concept of ＂self-cultivation.＂ Moreover, Confucian thinkers tend to discuss the effort of self-cultivation in the context of a body-mind continuum. Indeed, they often use orientational metaphors in order to describe the efforts entailed by cultivation. The fourth section analyzes the linguistic setting and context of the functional concept of transformation within Confucian philosophy of the concrete self. The term ＂transformation＂ indicates clearly that Confucian philosophy is a transformative philosophy. The fifth section analyzes the functional concept of nurture, stressing that Confucius＇ two greatest followers, Mencius and Xunzi, represent two opposed approaches to nurturing. Meneius stresses that one should undertake the effort of ＂nurturing qi,＂ that is, produce culture through natural cultivation, while Xunzi advocates artificially instilling culture in order to discipline, tame, and order nature. Mencius and Xunzi both turn to the container metaphor in their discussions of self-cultivation. The article concludes that the various cultivation activities advocated by these two disparate Confucians are based on two assumptions： （1） the self coincides with the physical body, and （2） the physical self is steeped in and interactive with the cultural values of society. In sum, the functional concept of self-cultivation is an important pillar of Confucian theories of self-cultivation.
文摘Condemned by Mencius （ca.372-289 BCE） as selfishness （weiwo, 为我）, Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy in China is traditionally depicted as a philosophy of egoism and hedonism. In contrast, Yang Zhu （fl.ca.370-350 BCE） is described as an ＂early liberal or individualist＂ hero in the Western Discussion of Chinese Philosophy. Yang Zhu may not be a liberal or individualist hero as portrayed by the West, but surely he should not be depicted as a promoter of egoism as Mencius did. Both John Emerson and A.C. Graham are probably right when they claimed that Yang Zhu was a revolutionary thinker of his own time; and ＂Yang Zhu＇s intervention for the Chinese thinking world had provoked a metaphysical crisis which had threatened the basic assumptions of Confucianism and Mohism and set them into a new course＂ （A.C. Graham 1978）. From my reading, Yang Zhu＇s influence on Chinese philosophy had been and will be even greater, although his philosophy as a whole was not practiced by Chinese society in the past due to the dominance of Confucianism. Yet as the first person who clearly emphasized nourishing of life for individuals and the first theory that rooted morality into xing （性, human nature）, Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy had indeed through history made a huge contribution to Chinese nurturing life tradition, and had great potential in providing inspiration to modern moral thinking. Many discussions initiated or developed by Yang Zhu and his followers have influenced both Confucianism and Daoism profoundly. His idea of nourishing life was not only inherited and developed by Zhuangzi and later Daoist religion from life preservation perspective, but also by Mencius and Xunzi from moral cultivation perspective. As a doctrine that has shown more and more relevance to modern society, people can find many inspirations from Yang Zhu＇s answer to the following questions： What is the aim of human life？ What is the right attitude toward life and death？ What is human nature？ What is the relationship between life nourishment and individual freedom？ Why nourishing one＇s own life should be as important as nourishing that of others？ What is the difference between humans and animals？ Why living a natural life is so important for human beings？ Based on materials collected from various Chinese sources directly related to Yang Zhu＇s school, especially the chapter entitled as ＂Yang Zhu＂ from the book of Liezi, this paper will explore essential features of Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy and its relevance to modern society. As ＂guiji＂ （贵已, cherishing oneself） is the core of Yang Zhu＇s yangsheng philosophy, discussion of this paper will focus on what Yang Zhu＇s ＂guiji＂ means, why Yang Zhu＇s ＂guiji＂ is not ＂weiwo＂ （为我, for oneself）, and how Yang Zhu＇s ＂guiji＂ yangsheng is relevant to modern society.
