国历新年与旧历新年之争——国民政府时期推行国历新年初探

国民政府建立后,为了快速打造“现代民族国家”,采用了国际通行历法,推行国历新年。为此,政府采取了一系列措施,以行政命令剥夺旧历新年的节日时间,取缔与旧历新年相关的民俗事项,企图以政治强力全面清除旧历新年的民俗时间印记,强化作为时间节点的国历新年。在政府的强力措施下,民间对于国历新年采取的是显性屈从与隐形抵制,除夕仍然是中华民族最为重要的岁时节令。民俗的传承性使其拥有强大的生命力,旧历新年承载着跨越时间的内涵与能量,在传统向现代迈进的过程中,现代民族国家完全可以继承和发展传统节日,从中汲取民族凝聚、国家认同的精神力量,化为现代化的无穷动力。

西历·国历·公历:近代中国的历法“正名”

在近代中国的历法改革运动中,伴随着具体的改历措施,时人也不断改换历法名称"西洋历"(西历)被改称为"太阳历"(阳历),后蜕变为"国历""公历",与此对照,中国传统历法的名称,也由"夏历"(华历)蜕变为"太阴历"(阴历)、"旧历"(废历)和"农历"。在此过程中,西洋新历与中国传统历法构成了一种区隔对立的关系,甚至成为判定中国传统历法优劣的标准。政府与趋新之士为推动阳历的施行,重构了"阳历"名称中的"西方"色彩及宗教因素,使之蜕变为"世界通用"之历法,进而成为国民必须遵守的时间规则。

“废历”:革命与进步情境中的旧历形象建构

以西历取代中国原有的阴阳合历,此举发生在近代化背景之下,是民国时期政府参照或依据西方科学在中国社会完成的一次对时间秩序的重构。西历相比于旧历的"科学性"与"进步性"就是在这一背景下完成的社会建构。在废除旧历运动中,西历被定为"国历",而旧历则被称为"废历";同时,在当时以"革命"与"进步"为线索的社会情境之下,"废历"还被附载了不属于它的内容和意义,使之与"废历"成为一体,从而实现对旧历的污名化。

从春秋祀孔到孔子纪念日:民国时期时间秩序重构的一个个案

根据民国时期相关史料,分析这一时期孔子诞日的旧历日期以及以这一旧历日期为基础的孔子诞日纪念的日期确定方法,发现孔子纪念日在民国时期的改造与确立是政府以时间秩序重构实现社会秩序重构的一个缩影。这一过程围绕两条线索展开:一是通过对周期性制度时间的规定与控制实现社会控制,这主要体现在政府对孔子诞日的指定与移置上;二是通过这种周期性纪念仪式的改造来重构和强化社会记忆,当官方对这一周期性纪念日的起点做出重新规定时,这一重构行为已经开始。

History of study,updated checklist,distribution and key of scorpions (Arachnida:Scorpiones) from China

This review describes the history of taxonomic research on scorpions and provides an updated checklist and key of the scorpions currently known in China. This checklist is based on a thorough review of the extant literatures on scorpion species whose presence has been confirmed in China through field expeditions and examination of scorpion collections, excepting a few members that have no clear distribution or are currently in doubt. Totally, the scorpion fauna of China consists of 53 species and subspecies belonging to 12 genera crossing five families, with 33 species(62.3%) and one genus being recorded as endemic. Additionally, identification key and the distribution of scorpions from China are provided.

Mass Loss from Glaciers in the Chinese Altai Mountains between 1959 and 2008 Revealed Based on Historical Maps, SRTM, and ASTER Images

Mass loss of glaciers in the Chinese Altai was detected using geodetic methods based on topographical maps(1959), the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission(SRTM) Digital Elevation Model(DEM)(2000), and the Advanced Space-borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer(ASTER) stereo images(2008). The results indicate that a continued and accelerating shrinkage has occurred in the Chinese Altai Mountains during the last 50 years, with mass deficits of 0.43 ± 0.02 and0.54 ± 0.13 m a-1 water equivalent(w.e.) during the periods 1959-1999 and 1999-2008, respectively.Overall, the Chinese Altai Mountains have lost 7.06 ±0.44 km3 in ice volume(equivalent to-0.43 ± 0.03 m a-1 w.e.) from 1959-2008. The spatial heterogeneity in mass loss was potentially affected by comprehensive changes in temperature and precipitation, and had a substantial correlation withglacier size and topographic settings. Comparison shows that in the Chinese Altai Mountains glaciers have experienced a more rapid mass loss than those in the Tianshan and northwestern Tibetan Plateau(TP), and the mass balance of glaciers was slightly less negative relative to those in the Russian Altai, Himalaya, and southern TP.

Three Models of English Education in China＇s Universities ——-A Historical Perspective

In the present paper, a comparison is made of the three formats in the history of EECU （English education in China＇s universities）. In the first period （1904-1949）, English education was conducted separately in government-managed educational institutions and in institutions sponsored by church-related organizations; English education was well-knit with both general education and specialty education; and self-motivating learning was encouraged. In the second period （1950-1966）, almost everything was tinted with a shady color of politics： A halt was addressed drastically to EEC （English education in China） in 1952. In the gradual recovery that started four years later, the second format was sawed and hammered, showing the following features： All non-government-mamaged institutions vanished from the stage; English was taught solely as a language or a system of verbal parts, almost deprived of all cultural loading. The third period （1978 onwards） has witnessed a barrier-free and rapid development of over three decades, resulting in the unprecedented pervasion of EECU. Yet in the third tbrmat, learners＇ efforts have turned wholly test-oriented, degenerating into the saddening disintegrity of learning as a process into isolated charges to the target of a test at a time; the ignorant reduction of the learning methods to ＂Vocabulary Booklets Plus Collections of Test Papers＂. Such a comparison not only provides a multi-dimensional perspective of EECU and a better understanding of it, but also offers some important experiences and lessons for the search of an effective solution to the pervasive problem of＂Time-Consumingness and Low-Efficiency＂.

Mass Human Migration and the Urban Heat Island during the Chinese New Year Holiday: A Case Study in Harbin City, Northeast China

Many Chinese people leave big cities for family reunions during the Chinese New Year （CNY）, which is the most important public holiday in China. However, how modem mass human migration during the CNY holiday affects the urban heat island （UHI） is still un- known. Here, the authors investigate the role of modem human migration for the UHI effects during the CNY holiday for the period of 1992-2006 in Harbin City, Northeast China. The results show that during the CNY week, the UHI effects expressed as daily mean, maxi- mum, and minimum temperature differences between urban and rural stations averaged over the period of 1992-2006 are 0.65℃ （43%）, 0.31℃ （48%）, and 1.14℃ （71%） lower than during the background period （four weeks before and four weeks after the CNY week）, re- spectively. Our findings identify previously unknown impacts of modem mass human migration on the UHI effects based on a case study in Harbin City.

A Historical Overview of China's Upgrading of Its Industrial Structure

This paper investigates the history of upgrade of industrial structure in human society from a combined perspective of economic and philosophical history encompassing primitive society,ancient society and recent and modern society.As far as recent and modern society is concerned,this paper divides the upgrade into two basic aspects:the shifting dominant position of primary,secondary and tertiary industries,and that of laborintensive,capital-intensive and knowledge-intensive industries.Moreover,this paper has examined the history of upgrade of industrial structure in China since 1949 and identified that the upgrade of China's industrial structure demonstrates not only the characteristics of middle and late stages of industrialization but characteristics of modernization as well.According to the general pattern of upgrade of industrial structure in recent and modern society and China's reality,great efforts must be made to improve China's indigenous innovation capacity,expedite agriculture modernization,increase competitiveness and qualitative development of manufacturing sector,and vigorously promote service sector(especially producers services),environmental protection industry,culture industry and maritime industry.

Model and Characteristics of China's Service Sector Reform during 1978-2016

This paper intends to provide an in-depth and comprehensive analysis of China＇s service sector reform during 1978-2016 and characterize the model of the service sector reform. Due to unique national conditions and development journey, China＇s service sector reform was carried out in the context of China＇s overall reform and opening-up program based on non-industrial motivations with a pragmatic approach to improve both people＇s livelihood and efficiency and address practical problems facing China in various stages of its development, putting aside theoretical controversies. How to further improve the model of China＇s service sector reform that came into shape in such a unique historical context and advance service sector reform is an important yet arduous task.

Historical Evolution of Mariculture in China During Past 40 Years and Its Impacts on Eco-environment

The rapid development of mariculture in China in recent decades has satisfied people's demand of seafood, and has made a great contribution to economic development. However, mariculture has also caused some negative impacts on the eco-environment. By statistically analyzing national data(as well as data for four main provinces) regarding the mariculture area and cultivation species in China since reform and opening up, the historical evolution of mariculture during the past 40 years was analyzed, the driving factors related to policy, market and technology innovation were discussed, and the potential impacts of mariculture on the coastal eco-environment were also illustrated. The statistical results indicated that the maricultural area increased radically during the past 40 years, from 1979(116.47 × 10~3 ha) to 2012(2205.65 × 10~3 ha), with an increase of nearly 20-fold. Shandong Province represented the fastest-growing region, with an increase of 31-fold. Moreover, the cultivated species had gradually become diversified. Initially, shellfish and algae were major species, and then it developed to various species including fish, and currently shellfish and crustaceans were the major species. The development of mariculture was driven by government policies, market economy and technology innovation. Rapid development of mariculture also caused significantly adverse impacts on the eco-environment of the coastal regions. For example, the sea reclamation for mariculture decreased the area and function of coastal wetlands and the contaminants originating from mariculture destroyed the coastal aquatic environment. Fortunately, the implementation of ‘13 th Five-Year Fisheries Planning' is expected to help both improve the seafood quality and reduce the contamination in coastal aquatic environment. This current study will provide reference for management and structure adjustment of mariculture in the future.

Development and Prospect of China Power Grids

In this paper the growing process of China power grid from formation of local power grids to nationwide interconnection is reviewed. The scale and structure of power grid construction in the near future, especially the planning on sending power from west to east, North-South supplementation and nationwide interconnection are introduced. In addition, the technologies to be extended in future grid development are briefed, such as HVDC, FACTS and compact transmission line, etc.

A brief introduction to neutron activation analysis in China―history,major achievements,and future perspectives

The history,the major achievements in both methodology and applications,the current trends and future perspectives of neutron activation analysis (NAA) in China are briefly described.

The Four Pillars of Emperors and Generals in Chinese History

The Four Pillars of Destiny is a traditional Chinese destiny analysis system based on a person＇s birth data, year, month, day, and hour. When expressing this birth information into the Chinese calendar, one can see details about the person＇s life and achievement deduced from the interaction of the 5 basic elements. The birth elements of famous emperors and generals in Chinese history have been interesting area of study and some of these famous people＇s birth data are very unique that can offer deeper insight in the research and study of Four Pillars of Destiny. This article focuses on the most fascinating examples of Chinese historical figures and explains how their special life path and achievement can be clearly reflected by their respective Four Pillars of Destiny.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BURN SURGERYIN CHINA —A RETROSPECTIVE OVERVIEW

Sheng Zhiyong Burns Institute, 304th Hospital, Beijing 100037

From Early States to Modem States in China： The Changing Concept and Connotation of ＂State＂

The substantive characteristics of the connotation of ＂State＂ include two parts： （I） the relatively perpetual and impersonalized political system; （II） the ductility of organization forms within the space and politics. And the later part is the absolute attribute of this connotation while the former part tends to show with different forms. Therefore, it is more suitable for the former one to be the objective for study on the evolution process of the connotation of ＂State＂ at different stages. Based on this understanding, the author discusses the specific political system at different stages and the relatively perpetual and impersonalized methods for the realization of the system, then tries to define the connotation of the early state, ancient state and modem state in Chinese history.

From the History of Georgian-German Cultural and Political Relationship： Prince Erekle in Berlin

Georgian kings and princes were trying to establish ties and to develop relationships with European monarchies. In times of cultural, religious, demographic crisis, the Catholic missions sent by the Pope, and Russian ambassadors hold out hope to the Bagrations. In such circumstances, Georgians became closer to Europeans. The Capuchins, the Theatines, Jesuit monks were honored guests and members of the royal retinue in the Georgian Kingdoms-Princedoms. Thanks to them, in XVII-XVIII centuries, were brought up such Georgians thinkers as： Vakhushti Batonishvili, Beri Egnatashvili, Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani, Vakhtang VI, Teimuraz II, daughter of Vaghtang VI, Tamar （mother of King Erekle II）, etc. In addition, at the royal courts of Russia and Persia, it became fashionable to send their Princes to Europe, in order to get an education. The best example of this is Peter the Great and Nader Shah＇s son--known as Baron Semlin. From XVIII century, in the history of Georgian-German relations, there are authentic sources about Georgians＇ stay in Germany. Among the sources, if taking them chronologically, the oldest is about military education of Prince Erekle. The following sources are about visits of other Georgian Princes to Germany. The next sources tell about the military campaign of Georgian Hussars regiment, in whose ranks poet Davit Guramishvili was fighting. Among the above-mentioned sources, in the Georgian historiography, the issue of Davit Guramishvili has been well researched, but the same cannot be said of King Erekle II.

Implications for Cultural Landscape in a Chinese Context: Geo-analysis of Spatial Distribution of Historic Sites

The protection of historic sites, especially their relationship with urban development, has become a worldwide issue, both in developed and developing countries. In the context of rapid urbanization in China, the realistic compatibility between urban construction and the protection of historic sites is always a key research topic. In this study, first, to comprehend their spatial distribution patterns, 828 historic sites throughout the country are selected based on certain criteria. Then, we conduct quantitative research using GIS software, adopting indicators that include Nearest Neighbor Index, Gini Coefficient, and Geographic Concentration Index to analyze the spatial characteristics of historic sites on the three levels of city, province and nation. The results indicate that the spatial distribution of the different types of historic sites is an agglomeration on the nationwide scale, most of which is located in the regions of the Pearl(Zhujiang) River Delta, Yangtze(Changjiang) River Delta and Beijing-Tianjin Region. Because the majority of historic sites are located within approximately 10 km of the downtown area, a certain pattern has emerged, showing that the larger cities own more historic areas, which are in a more incomplete state of preservation, indicating the fragmentation of heritage spaces. The formation mechanism of the historic sites' distribution pattern is based on the conditions of the cities/towns as well as the bid-rent theory.

Frontier and Urban Writing in Moon Palace

In Moon Palace, on the surface, there are loosely unbelievable adventurous experiences of three generations, but at depth, it examines the wild west and urban civilization and their roles in American history as initiator of the myths of the frontier and the urban progress. In this novel, Auster uncovers how American history and myth of frontier are constructed by describing the wildness and Auster reflects and criticize urban civilization by depicting the cities.

The Construction of＂New Woman＂ in Chen Hengzhe＇s Autobiography

This essay examines the autobiography of Chen Hengzhe （1890-1976） （see Appendix）, a relatively less studied woman writer, historian, and critic in modem China. Through the study in four aspects, namely, the pursuit of modem education, simple appearance, great leaders, and the ambassadors of culture, the author＇s research indicates that Chen＇s construction of＂new woman＂ has been influenced by complex historical and cultural forces such as the Chinese traditional culture, Western culture, and the iconoclastic spirit of ＂the New Culture Movement＂. Meanwhile, Chen＇s gender consciousness is also an important element. Moreover, Chen＇s pioneering standing and her own experiences of studying abroad makes her take the lead in conceiving women＇s leadership and their roles in global culture communications. In the late Qing and the early Republic, traditional values and norms of womanhood were severely challenged. Chen＇s construction of＂new woman＂ is her conscious effort to define a new womanhood and is an integral part of the ongoing exploration of Chinese women for modem womanhood. Through the examination of Chen＇s ＂new woman＂, this paper seeks to enrich our understanding of the complexity of modem Chinese women＇s exploration of modem womanhood.