明初海外贸易制度变迁视野下的伪使问题

伪使现象普遍存在于明初中日交涉和南海国家的朝贡活动。这一现象反映了元末明初海外贸易制度变迁下海外商人的行为选择。明初实行海禁,宋元以来自由贸易制度自此向朝贡贸易制度转变。海外商人因应制度环境变化,采取假扮贡使或加入朝贡使团的方式来维持贸易,因此产生伪使现象。朱元璋最初采取禁止入贡手段解决伪使问题,但遭到胡惟庸等中书省官员抵制,禁止入贡因此有名无实。洪武十六年,朱元璋将明朝国内实行的勘合制度移用至朝贡领域,使朝贡贸易制度得以强化。但是,伪使现象产生的根源,在于朝贡贸易制度无法容纳实际的贸易需求,强化这一制度仍然不能解决制度与现实的矛盾,朝贡贸易制度面临内部自我衰败和外部走私贸易冲击的双重困境。

明代海外贸易制度与陶瓷外销

明代在对外贸易的管理上,继续实行前朝延续下来的市舶制度。明代早期到中期严格实行"海禁"政策,使"朝贡"贸易成为唯一合法的形式,海外贸易完全置于明政府的严格控制之下。明代晚期至清代,从开海、海禁到海关建立,海外贸易政策也经历了多次调整。明代早期至中期,由于统治者实行严厉的海禁政策,使民间私商贸易极受限制。此时对外输出的瓷器所涉及的窑口和数量、品种都比较少。市场仍局限于"广州通海夷道"沿线的国家和地区。明代中期至晚期,海禁政策逐渐松弛。随着大航海时代的来临,中国陶瓷的外销开始迎来新的高峰。市场除了原有的东亚、东南亚、西亚和东非等地外,更开始进入了欧洲市场。产品涉及的窑口及品种较之以前更加丰富,质量亦大有提高。

On the legal systems of the overseas trade in the Song Dynasty

The golden period of the development of China＇s overseas trades is most significant in the Song Dynasty, which established the legal mechanisms of the overseas trades with the perfect systems. These legal regulations made clear the subjects of the overseas trade to a large extent, stipulated the procedures for the overseas trade, and at the same time, established the related legal liabilities and regulation means and methods of the governments. Although it met the huge demands of the development of the foreign trade, and had brought the economic income for the governments, yet because the governments had adopted the strict control measures, to a certain extent, it also restricted the rapid development of the foreign trade. This paper starts from the analysis of the legal subjects of the overseas trade in the Song Dynasty, and conducted the specific analysis of the trade procedures and other related contents of the legal systems of the overseas trade in the Song Dynasty.