Sense-oriented reasoning （SOR） was analyzed by comparing the reasoning of tribal and modem societies on a specific subject, the conception and birth of a child. Tribal societies have beliefs, which are difficult to ...Sense-oriented reasoning （SOR） was analyzed by comparing the reasoning of tribal and modem societies on a specific subject, the conception and birth of a child. Tribal societies have beliefs, which are difficult to understand by modem societies. Their reasoning becomes understandable only when considering that their observations are limited to the macrocosm. Modem societies have access to the microcosm with a microscope, where different biological mechanisms for the conception of a child were discovered. Since the tribes＇ macroscopical observations were different, their conclusions became necessarily different. The inheritance problem can only be solved by genes at the microscopic level, to which tribal societies had no access. With observations limited to the macrocosm, tribes logically invoked invisible child-spirits of ancestors wanting to be reincarnated in children of the same tribe. Besides the different access to observation, the reasoning of both societies is similar and built around the investigation of a final sense. Reasoning progresses after a phase without any quest for sense through three progressive levels： （1） primary sense, （2） corrected sense, and （3） verified sense. In tribal societies, reasoning is interrupted at the primary sense level when it seems consistent with their general beliefs and traditions. This resembles coherentist theories of epistemic justification, in which justification is only a function of coherence between beliefs. Tribal societies realize the input problem of these theories, since they have no access to the microcosm and also illustrate the Gettier problem. Modem societies progress to the higher levels of corrected and verified sense reasoning, even if inconsistent with their prior beliefs. They initially imagined genes as a hypothetic missing link for inheritance, which relies on a start observation concerning the character of ancestors to the target observation, the similarity with the character of children. If the missing link is definitely verified, it shows a chain of justified beliefs between both observations, allowing the initially hypothetic missing link to be retrospectively considered as the real cause. The SOR of modem societies resembles the extemalist version of foundationalism of epistemic justification, in which the necessary non-inferential justification is represented by the target observation.展开更多
In order to present an historical discussion on spherical geometry in relativity between the 19th-20th centuries, the current research divided into two parts-papers is presented. Part I： Reflections on geometry-physi...In order to present an historical discussion on spherical geometry in relativity between the 19th-20th centuries, the current research divided into two parts-papers is presented. Part I： Reflections on geometry-physics relationship is an excursus focusing on the role played by geometry in history and its relationship with physics. Part II： Reflections on Late Relationship Geometry-Physics is an epistemological investigation on the history of the foundations of geometry in special relativity focusing in S4（0, x, y, z, O. In this sense, the two parts are complementary. By considering the large literature, we decided to present the main and basic accredited references, maybe useful for very young scholars, as well.展开更多
Studies of causal understanding of tool relationships in captive chimpanzees have yielded disparate findings, particularly those reported by Povinelli ＆ colleagues （2000） for tool tasks by laboratory chimpanzees. T...Studies of causal understanding of tool relationships in captive chimpanzees have yielded disparate findings, particularly those reported by Povinelli ＆ colleagues （2000） for tool tasks by laboratory chimpanzees. The present set of experiments tested nine enculturated chimpanzees on three versions of a support task, as described by Povinelli （2000）, during which food re- wards were presented in different experimental configurations. In Experiment 1, stimulus pairs included a choice between a cloth with a reward on the upper right comer or with a second reward off the cloth, adjacent to a comer, with the second pair comprised of a cloth with food on the upper right comer, and a second cloth with the reward on the substrate, partially covered. All subjects were successful with both test conditions in Experiment 1. In a second study, the experimental choices included one of two possi- ble correct options, paired with one of three incorrect options, with the three incorrect choices all involving varying degrees of perceptual containment. All nine chimpanzees scored significantly above chance across all six conditions. In Experiment 3, four unique conditions were presented, combining one of two possible correct choices with one of two incorrect choices. Six of the subjects scored significantly above chance across the four conditions, and group performance on individual conditions was also significant. Superior performance was demonstrated by female subjects in Experiment 3, similar to sex differences in tool use previously reported for wild chimpanzees and some tool tasks in captive chimpanzees. The present results for Experiments 2 ＆ 3 were significantly differed from those reported by Povinelli et al. （2000） for laboratory-born, peer-reared chimpanzees. One contribution towards the dramatic differences between the two study populations may be the significant rearing and housing differences of the chimpanzee groups. One explanation is that under conditions of enculturation, rich social interactions with humans and conspecifics, as well as active exploration of artifacts, materials, and other aspects of their physical environment had a significant impact on the animals＇ ability to recognize the support relationships among the stimulus choices. Overall, the present findings provide strong support for the hypothesis that our chimpanzee subjects based their responses on an understanding of functional support which represented one facet of their folk physics repertoire [Current Zoology 57 （4）： 429-440, 2011].展开更多
文摘Sense-oriented reasoning （SOR） was analyzed by comparing the reasoning of tribal and modem societies on a specific subject, the conception and birth of a child. Tribal societies have beliefs, which are difficult to understand by modem societies. Their reasoning becomes understandable only when considering that their observations are limited to the macrocosm. Modem societies have access to the microcosm with a microscope, where different biological mechanisms for the conception of a child were discovered. Since the tribes＇ macroscopical observations were different, their conclusions became necessarily different. The inheritance problem can only be solved by genes at the microscopic level, to which tribal societies had no access. With observations limited to the macrocosm, tribes logically invoked invisible child-spirits of ancestors wanting to be reincarnated in children of the same tribe. Besides the different access to observation, the reasoning of both societies is similar and built around the investigation of a final sense. Reasoning progresses after a phase without any quest for sense through three progressive levels： （1） primary sense, （2） corrected sense, and （3） verified sense. In tribal societies, reasoning is interrupted at the primary sense level when it seems consistent with their general beliefs and traditions. This resembles coherentist theories of epistemic justification, in which justification is only a function of coherence between beliefs. Tribal societies realize the input problem of these theories, since they have no access to the microcosm and also illustrate the Gettier problem. Modem societies progress to the higher levels of corrected and verified sense reasoning, even if inconsistent with their prior beliefs. They initially imagined genes as a hypothetic missing link for inheritance, which relies on a start observation concerning the character of ancestors to the target observation, the similarity with the character of children. If the missing link is definitely verified, it shows a chain of justified beliefs between both observations, allowing the initially hypothetic missing link to be retrospectively considered as the real cause. The SOR of modem societies resembles the extemalist version of foundationalism of epistemic justification, in which the necessary non-inferential justification is represented by the target observation.
文摘In order to present an historical discussion on spherical geometry in relativity between the 19th-20th centuries, the current research divided into two parts-papers is presented. Part I： Reflections on geometry-physics relationship is an excursus focusing on the role played by geometry in history and its relationship with physics. Part II： Reflections on Late Relationship Geometry-Physics is an epistemological investigation on the history of the foundations of geometry in special relativity focusing in S4（0, x, y, z, O. In this sense, the two parts are complementary. By considering the large literature, we decided to present the main and basic accredited references, maybe useful for very young scholars, as well.
文摘Studies of causal understanding of tool relationships in captive chimpanzees have yielded disparate findings, particularly those reported by Povinelli ＆ colleagues （2000） for tool tasks by laboratory chimpanzees. The present set of experiments tested nine enculturated chimpanzees on three versions of a support task, as described by Povinelli （2000）, during which food re- wards were presented in different experimental configurations. In Experiment 1, stimulus pairs included a choice between a cloth with a reward on the upper right comer or with a second reward off the cloth, adjacent to a comer, with the second pair comprised of a cloth with food on the upper right comer, and a second cloth with the reward on the substrate, partially covered. All subjects were successful with both test conditions in Experiment 1. In a second study, the experimental choices included one of two possi- ble correct options, paired with one of three incorrect options, with the three incorrect choices all involving varying degrees of perceptual containment. All nine chimpanzees scored significantly above chance across all six conditions. In Experiment 3, four unique conditions were presented, combining one of two possible correct choices with one of two incorrect choices. Six of the subjects scored significantly above chance across the four conditions, and group performance on individual conditions was also significant. Superior performance was demonstrated by female subjects in Experiment 3, similar to sex differences in tool use previously reported for wild chimpanzees and some tool tasks in captive chimpanzees. The present results for Experiments 2 ＆ 3 were significantly differed from those reported by Povinelli et al. （2000） for laboratory-born, peer-reared chimpanzees. One contribution towards the dramatic differences between the two study populations may be the significant rearing and housing differences of the chimpanzee groups. One explanation is that under conditions of enculturation, rich social interactions with humans and conspecifics, as well as active exploration of artifacts, materials, and other aspects of their physical environment had a significant impact on the animals＇ ability to recognize the support relationships among the stimulus choices. Overall, the present findings provide strong support for the hypothesis that our chimpanzee subjects based their responses on an understanding of functional support which represented one facet of their folk physics repertoire [Current Zoology 57 （4）： 429-440, 2011].
