Ablation Processes for HfC-Coated 2.5D Needle-Punched Composites Used for Aerospace Engines Under Hypersonic Flight Conditions

The working environment of aerospace engines is extremely harsh with temperature exceeding 1700℃and accompanied by thermal coupling effects.In this condition,the materials employed in hypersonic aircraft undergo ablation issues,which can cause catastrophic accidents.Due to the excellent high-temperature stability and ablation resistance,HfC exhibits outstanding thermal expansion coefficient matching that of C/SiC composites.2.5D needle-punched C/SiC composites coated with HfC are prepared using a plasma spraying process,and a high-enthalpy arc-heated wind tunnel is employed to simulate the re-entry environment of aircraft at 8 Mach and an altitude of 32 km.The plasma-sprayed HfC-coated 2.5D needle-punched C/SiC composites are subjected to long-term dynamic testing,and their properties are investigated.Specifically,after the thermal assessment ablation experiment,the composite retains its overall structure and profile;the total mass ablation rate is 0.07445 g/s,the average linear ablation rate in the thickness direction is-0.0675μm/s,and the average linear ablation rate in the length direction is 13.907μm/s.Results verify that plasma-sprayed HfC coating exhibits excellent anti-oxidation and ablation resistance properties.Besides,the microstructure and ablation mechanism of the C/SiC composites are studied.It is believed that this work will offer guideline for the development of thermal protection materials and the assessment of structural thermal performance.

INCLINED LAMINAL COMBINATION MODEL OF 3D BRAIDED COMPOSITES

As an advanced composite material, the 3D braided composite has received more and more attention in foreign countries. However, it has received less attention in China. The geometric unit cell which can describe the basic structure and the relationship between the braiding angle and geometric parameters of the fabric and fiber volume ratio are given in this paper based on two 3D braiding processes, namely, the four-step and the twostep ones. Several existing mechanical models to predict groperties of the 3D braided comPOsites are discussed and their shortcomings are pointed out herein. Then a new model called the inclined laminal combination model is proposed, which is based on the classical laminated plate theory and can predict the basic mechanical behavior of the two 3D braided composites with four-step or two-step braid. In the model, each yarn in the unit cell is regarded as an inclined laminate and then a 3D analysis is performed. It is found that the predicted mechanical properties of the 3D braided composites by the proposed model are compared well with the experimental data.

Microstructure Analysis of 4-Step Three-Dimensional Braided Composite

The yarn architecture of 3-D braided composites products by the four-step 1×1 braiding technique has been studied by means of a control volume method in conjunction with experimental investigation and a numerical method, respectively. An ellipse assumption for the cross-section of yarn was proposed in this analysis method with considering the yarn size and yarn-packing factor. Two types of local unit cell structures were identified for 4-step braided composites by considering the nature of the braiding processes and by observing the sample cross-sections. The relationship between the braiding procedure and the properties for 3-D braided structural shapes was established. This method provides the basis for analyzing stiffness and strength of 3-D braided composites.

Tensile Properties of 3-Dimension-4-directional Braided C_f/Si C Composite based on Double-scale Model

The longitude tensile properties of 3-Dimension-4-directional（3D-4d） braided C/Si C composites（CMCs） were investigated with the help of a double scale model. This model involves micro-scale and unit-cell scale. In micro-scale, the tensile properties of fiber tows which involves matrix cracking, interfacial debonding, and fiber failure are studied. The unit-cell scale model can reflect the braided structure and simulate the tensile properties of 3D-4d CMCs by introducing the tensile properties of fiber tows into it. Quasi-static tensile tests of 3D-4d braided CMCs were performed on a PWS-100 test system. The predicted tensile stressstrain curve by the double scale model is in good agreement with that of the experimental results.

Analytical Model of Elastic Modulus and Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for 2.5D C/SiC Composite

To make better use of 2.5D C/SiC composites in industry, it is necessary to understand the mechanical properties. A finite element model＇of 2.5D composites is established, by considering the fiber undulation and the porosity in 2.5D C/SiC composites. The fiber direction of warp is defined by cosine function to simulate the undulation of warp, and based on uniform strain assumption, analytical model of the elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion （CTE） for 2.5D C/SiC composites were established by using dual- scale model. The result is found to correlate reasonably well with the predicted results and experimental results. The parametric study also demonstrates the effects of the fiber volume fraction, distance of warp yarn, and porosity in micro-scale on the mechanical properties and the coefficients of thermal expansion.

Effective Thermal Conductivity for 3D Five-Directional Braided Composites Based on Microstructural Analysis

A method for predicting effective thermal conductivities(ETCs) of three-dimensional five-directional(3D5D) braided composites is presented. The effective thermal conductivity prediction method contains a digital image processing technology. Multiple scanning electron microscopy(SEM)images of composites are analyzed to obtain actual microstructural features. These actual microstructural features of 3D5D braided composites are introduced into representative volume element(RVE) modeling. Apart from applying actual microstructural features,compression effects between yarns are considered in the modeling of RVE,making the RVE more realistic. Therefore,the ETC prediction method establishes a representative unit cell model that better reflects the true microstructural characteristics of the 3D5D braided composites. The ETCs are predicted with the finite element method. Then thermal conductivity measurements are carried out for a 3D5D braided composite sample.By comparing the predicted ETC with the measured thermal conductivity, the whole process of the ETC prediction method is proved to be effective and accurate,where a relative error of only 2.9 % is obtained.Furthermore,the effects of microstructural features are investigated,indicating that increasing interior braiding angles and fiber fill factor can lead to higher transverse ETCs. Longitudinal ETCs decrease with increasing interior braiding angles,but increase with increasing fiber fill factor. Finally,the influence of variations of microstructure parameters observed in digital image processing are investigated. To explore the influence of variations in microstructural features on variations in predicted ETCs,the actual probability distributions of microstructural features obtained from the 3D5D braided composite sample are introduced into the ETC investigation. The results show that,compared with the interior braiding angle,variations in the fiber fill factor exhibit more significant effects on variations in ETCs.

Theoretical prediction of stiffness and strength of three-dimensional and four-directional braided composites

Based on unit cell model, the 3D 4-directional braided composites can be simplified as unidirectional composites with different local axial coordinate system and the compliance matrix of unidirectional composites can be defined utilizing the bridge model. The total stiffness matrix of braided composites can be obtained by the volume average stiffness of unidirectional composites with different local axial coordinate system and the engineering elastic constants of braided composites were computed further. Based on the iso-strain assumption and the bridge model, the stress distribution of fiber bundle and matrix of different unidirectional composites can be determined and the tensile strength of 3D 4-directional braided composites was predicted by means of the Hoffman＇s failure criterion for the fiber bundle and Mises＇ failure criterion for the matrix.

DAMAGE MECHANISM ANALYSIS OF 2D 1×1 BRAIDED COMPOSITES UNDER UNIDIRECTIONAL TENSION

Coupling with the periodical displacement boundary condition,a representative volume element(RVE) model is established to simulate the progressive damage behavior of 2D1×1 braided composites under unidirectional tension by using the nonlinear finite element method.Tsai-Wu failure criterion with various damage modes and Mises criterion are considered for predicting damage initiation and progression of yarns and matrix.The anisotropic damage model for yarns and the isotropic damage model for matrix are used to simulate the microscopic damage propagation of 2D1×1braided composites.Murakami′s damage tensor is adopted to characterize each damage mode.In the simulation process,the damage mechanisms are revealed and the tensile strength of 2D1×1braided composites is predicted from the calculated average stress-average strain curve.Numerical results show good agreement with experimental data,thus the proposed simulation method is verified for damage mechanism analysis of 2D braided composites.

Electrical⁃Mechanical Coupling Behaviors and Thermal⁃Resistance Effects of 3D Braided Composites

Electrical-mechanical coupling behaviors and thermal-resistance effects of 3D braided composites under external loads are important for structural health monitoring(SHM). Electrical conductivity and electrical-mechanical coupling behaviors of 3D braided carbon fiber/epoxy composites under uniaxial tension were reported. It was found that the transverse resistance decreased and the axial resistance increased with the increasing braiding angle. The fractional change in resistance increased linearly as the strain was below 1.0%, and the nonlinearity appeared when the strain exceeded 1.0%. The negative temperature coefficient(NTC) effect was observed before the glass transition temperature Tg of epoxy resin, while there was a positive temperature coefficient(PTC) effect after Tg.

Yarn Architecture Analysis of Two-step 3D Braided Composites

A comprehensive study of yarn architecture of two-step rectangle 3D braided composites is presented. Firstly, the braided surface, the shapes of yarns and the intertwining between braider yams and axial yams are analyzed from experimentation. With the microstructure being defined, three levels of unit cell structure are identified, i.e. large unit cell, second unit cell and minimal unit cell. Secondly, based on the minimal unit cell in the interior and on the boundary of the entire cross-section, the deformations of axial yams squashed by braider yams contribute to the increase of the fiber packing factors of axial yams. Finally, the predicted fiber volume fraction of the composites decreases with the increase of linear density of the braider yam and the pitch length. Favorable correlations between the predicted and the experimental results arc found for six groups of the composites.

Elastic Modulus Prediction of Three-dimension-4 Directional Braided C_f/SiC Composite Based on Double-scale Model

Double-scale model for three-dimension-4 directional（3D-4d） braided C/SiC composites has been proposed to investigate its elastic properties. The double-scale model involves micro-scale that takes fiber/ matrix/porosity in fibers tows into consideration with unit cell which considers the 3D-4d braiding structure. Micro-optical photographs of composites have been taken to study the braided structure. Then a parameterized finite element model that reflects the structure of 3D-4d braided composites is proposed. Double-scale elastic modulus prediction model is developed to predict the elastic properties of 3D-4d braided C/SiC composites. Stiffness and eompliance-averaging method and energy method are adopted to predict the elastic properties of composites. Static-tension experiments have been conducted to investigate the elastic modulus of 3D-4d braided C/SiC composites. Finally, the effect of micro-porosity in fibers tows on the elastic modulus of 3D-4d braided C/SiC composites has been studied. According to the conclusion of this thesis, elastic modulus predicted by energy method and stiffness-averaging method both find good agreement with the experimental values, when taking the micro-porosity in fibers tows into consideration. Differences between the theoretical and experimental values become smaller.

Effects of Microstructure on Quasi⁃Static Transverse Loading Behavior of 3D Circular Braided Composite Tubes

The effects of microstructure on quasi-static transverse loading behavior of 3D circular braided composite tubes were studied. Transverse loading tests were conducted. Transverse load-deflection curves were obtained to analyze the effects of braiding parameters including the braiding angle, the wall thickness, and the diameter on the transverse loading of 3D circular braided composite tubes. Breaking loads, moduli and strengths had also been used to describe the transverse loading behaviors. The failure morphologies were shown to reveal damage mechanisms. From the results, the increase in braiding angle, wall thickness and diameter increases the ability of anti-deformation and breaking load of braided tubes. The breaking load of specimen with a braiding angle of 45° is about 1.68 times that of specimen with a braiding angle of 15°. The breaking load of specimen with 4 layers of yarns is about 2.15 times that of specimen with 2 layers of yarns. The breaking load of the tube with a diameter of 25.5 mm is about 2.39 times that of the tube with a diameter of 20.5 mm.

Using Acoustic Emissions to Detect Damage in Three-Dimensional Braided Composites

Three-dimensional(3D)braided composites with better properties have been used in some particular industries.Some have had obvious signs of crack when they are braided.Others have had catastrophic failures occuring without warning.A new methodology for the analysis of failure modes in composite materials by means of acoustic emission techniques has been developed.The occurrence of fiber-breakage during tensile loading tests has been observed by the acoustic emission technology.Using acoustic emission technology is investigated as a means of monitoring 3D braided composites structures,detecting damage,and predicting impending damage.Some of the findings of the research project were presented.

Defects Recognition of 3D Braided Composite Based on Dual-Tree Complex Wavelet Packet Transform

Textile-reinforced composites,due to their excellent highstrength-to-low-mass ratio, provide promising alternatives to conventional structural materials in many high-tech sectors. 3D braided composites are a kind of advanced composites reinforced with 3D braided fabrics; the complex nature of 3D braided composites makes the evaluation of the quality of the product very difficult. In this investigation,a defect recognition platform for 3D braided composites evaluation was constructed based on dual-tree complex wavelet packet transform( DT-CWPT) and backpropagation( BP) neural networks. The defects in 3D braided composite materials were probed and detected by an ultrasonic sensing system. DT-CWPT method was used to analyze the ultrasonic scanning pulse signals,and the feature vectors of these signals were extracted into the BP neural networks as samples. The type of defects was identified and recognized with the characteristic ultrasonic wave spectra. The position of defects for the test samples can be determined at the same time. This method would have great potential to evaluate the quality of 3D braided composites.

Statistical Model of the 3-D Braided Composites Strength

Based on the statistical model for the tensile statistical strength of unidirectional composite materials and the stress analysis of 3-D braided composites, a new method is proposed to calculate the tensile statistical strength of the 3-D braided compos- ites. With this method, the strength of 3-D braided composites can be calculated with very large accuracy, and the statistical parameters of 3-D braided composites can be determined. The numerical result shows that the tensile statistical strength of 3-D braided composites can be predicted using this method.

2.5D机织复合材料结构与力学性能关系的研究

本文设计了3种典型2.5D机织物组织,制作了满足要求的试验件。对2.5D机织复合材料经、纬向的拉伸、压缩和层间剪切等性能进行了试验研究,获得了该种材料的主要力学性能参数。分析了这几种材料的结构与性能的关系,得到了一些有益的结论。结论表明,2.5D机织复合材料的拉伸、压缩、剪切强度基本取决于其纱线倾角和纤维体积含量;相同层数的2.5D机织复合材料的拉伸、压缩、剪切强度均表现为深交联>浅交直联>浅交弯联。

2.5D纺织结构复合材料预制件的设计及织造

对五层2.5D层间弯交浅联预制件织物组织和各项参数进行了设计,并在SV-111全自动剑杆织样机上进行了试织,以探讨其可织性。

三维五向编织复合材料纵向性能的实验研究

通过对具有不同编织结构参数的三维五向编织复合材料试件的纵向拉伸和压缩实验,分析了该类材料的纵向拉、压刚度和强度随编织工艺参数的变化规律以及材料的失效形式。三维五向编织复合材料在破坏前基本保持线弹性,纵向拉、压破坏具有脆性特征,拉伸模量和压缩模量比较接近,但拉伸强度远大于压缩强度。编织角和纤维体积含量对材料性能的影响显著,纱线粗细的影响不大。提高第五向纱线的比例,可提高材料的纵向性能。此外,研究中采用短标距薄板试件,以避免试件产生整体屈曲和端部纤维束开裂破坏。

三维编织复合材料的疲劳性能

研究了三维编织复合材料的疲劳性能和编织结构对疲劳性能的影响.进行了应力比为0.1、实验频率为10 Hz的拉-拉疲劳性能测试.结果表明,三维编织复合材料的疲劳强度约为其抗拉强度的60%～80%,比金属材料的疲劳强度的相对值高.编织角是影响三维编织结构复合材料疲劳性能的一个主要因素.随着编织角的增大,疲劳过程中易出现各种损伤,而且伴随明显的升温现象.编织角大的试件在疲劳实验过程中模量变化明显,并且呈现逐渐升高的趋势,这与金属材料的双模量变化规律不同.在疲劳次数为100万次后,试件的剩余强度高于静载拉伸强度,这主要是由于在疲劳测试过程中,试件内编织纱线的取向更接近受力方向所致.

三维五向编织复合材料导热性能的有限元分析

根据三维五向编织复合材料的细观结构模型,分别假设编织纱线和轴纱具有六边形和正方形横截面,建立了计算三维五向编织复合材料导热性能的有限元模型.采用有限元方法,设定合理的边界条件,计算了三维五向编织复合材料的横向和纵向热传导系数,并与三维四向编织复合材料的热传导系数进行了比较,分析了编织角和纤维体积含量对热传导系数的影响规律.此外,还确定了材料内部的温度、热梯度及热流量的分布,为材料热力耦合问题的分析奠定了基础.