3-D seismic interpretation of stratigraphic and structural features in the Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous sequence of the Gullfaks Field,Norwegian North Sea:A case study of reservoir development

The 3-D seismic dataset is a key tool to analyze and understand the mechanism of structural and stratigraphic hydrocarbon(HC)trapping in the subsurface.Conventionally used subsurface seismic characterization methods for fractures are based on the theory of effective anisotropy medium.The aim of this work is to improve the structural images with dense sampling of 3-D survey to evaluate structural and stratigraphic models for reservoir development to predict reservoir quality.The present study of the Gullfaks Field,located in the Norwegian North Sea Gullfaks sector,identifies the shallowest structural elements.The steepness of westward structural dip decreases eastward during the Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous deposition.Reservoir sands consist of the Middle Jurassic deltaic deposits and Lower Jurassic fluvial channel and delta plain deposits.Sediment supply steadily prevails on sea-level rise and the succession displays a regressive trend indicated by a good continuous stacking pattern.The key factor for the development of reservoirs in the Gullfaks Field is fault transmissibility with spatially distributed pressure.The majority of mapped faults with sand-to-sand contacts are non-sealing,which provide restriction for the HC flow between the fault blocks.The traps for HC accumulation occur between the post-rift and syn-rift strata,i.e.antiform set by extensional system,unconformity trap at the top of syndeposition,and structural trap due to normal faults.Overall reservoir quality in the studied area is generally excellent with average 35%porosity and permeability in the Darcy range.Our findings are useful to better understand the development of siliciclastic reservoirs in similar geological settings worldwide.

Research on the 3-D Seismic Structures in Qinghai-Xizang Plateau

Based on the recording data from the analogue and broadband digital seismic stations in and around Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau, the three dimensional (3-D) seismic velocity structures in Qinghai-Xizang Plateau were obtained by using the regional body wave tomography and surface wave tomography. The results from these two tomography methods have similar characteristics for P- and S-wave velocity structures in crust and upper mantle. They show that there are remarkable low velocity zones in the upper crust of Lhasa block in the southern Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and the lower crust and upper mantle of Qiangtang block in the northern Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. These phenomena may be related to the different steps of collision process in southern and northern Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.

A study on 3-D velocity structure of crust and upper mantle in Sichuan -Yunnan region, China

Based on the first arrival P and S data of 4 625 regional earthquakes recorded at 174 stations dispersed in the Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces, the 3-D velocity structure of crust and upper mantle in the region is determined, incorporating with previous deep geophysical data. In the upper crust, a positive anomaly velocity zone exists in the Sichuan basin, whereas a negative anomaly velocity zone exists in the western Sichuan plateau. The boundary between the positive and negative anomaly zones is the Longmenshan fault zone. The images of lower crust and upper mantle in the Longmenshan fault, Xianshuihe fault, Honghe fault and others show the characteristic of tectonic boundary, indicating that the faults likely penetrate the Moho discontinuity. The negative velocity anomalies at the depth of 50 km in the Tengchong volcanic area and the Panxi tectonic zone appear to be associated with the temperature and composition variations in the upper mantle. The overall features of the crustal and the upper mantle structures in the SichuanYunnan region are the lower average velocity in both crust and uppermost mantle, the large crustal thickness variations, and the existence of high conductivity layer in the crust or/and upper mantle, and higher geothermal value. All these features are closely related to the collision between the India and the Asia plates. The crustal velocity in the SichuanYunnan rhombic block generally shows normal value or positive anomaly, while the negative anomaly exists in the area along the large strike-slip faults as the block boundary. It is conducive to the crustal block side-pressing out along the faults. In the major seismic zones, the seismicity is relative to the negative anomaly velocity. Most strong earthquakes occurred in the upper-mid crust with positive anomaly or normal velocity, where the negative anomaly zone generally exists below.

Scattering of seismic waves by three-dimensional large-scale hill topography simulated by a fast parallel IBEM

To solve seismic wave scattering by a large-scale three-dimensional(3-D) hill topography, a fast parallel indirect boundary element method(IBEM) is developed by proposing a new construction method for the wave field, modifying the generalized minimum residual(GMRES) algorithm and constructing an Open MP plus MPI parallel model. The validations of accuracy and efficiency show that this method can solve 3-D seismic response of a large-scale hill topography for broadband waves, and overcome the weakness of large storage and low efficiency of the traditional IBEM. Based on this new algorithm architecture, taking the broadband scattering of plane SV waves by a large-scale Gaussian-shaped hill of thousands-meters height as an example, the influence of several important parameters is investigated, including the incident frequency, the incident angle and the height-width and length-width ratio of the hill. The numerical results illustrate that the amplification effect on the ground motion by a near-hemispherical hill is more significant than the narrow hill. For low-frequency waves, the scattering effect of the higher hill is more pronounced, and there is only a single peak near the top of the hill. However, for high-frequency waves, rapid spatial variation of displacement amplitude appears on the hill surface.

Determination of 3-D Velocity Anomalies of the Nanbei Tectonic Zone of China Based on Local Earthquakes

: In this paper, 3-D velocity images of the crust and upper mantle beneath the Nanbei tectonic zone of China are constructed using P-wave travel time residuals of earthquakes, with the data supplied by China's seismic networks and the International Seismic Centre.

3-D Modelling of the Confederation Bridge Using Data of Full Scale Tests

Long-span bridges are special structures that require advanced analysis techniques to examine their performance. This paper presents a procedure developed to model the Confederation Bridge using 3-D beam elements. The model was validated using the data collected before the opening of the bridge to the public. The bridge was instrumented to conduct fullscale static and dynamic tests. The static tests were to measure the deflection of the bridge pier while the dynamic tests to measure the free vibrations of the pier due to a sudden release of the static load. Confederation Bridge is one of the longest reinforced concrete bridges in the world. It connects the province of Prince Edward Island and the province of New Brunswick in Canada. Due to its strategic location and vital role as a transportation link between these two provinces, it was designed using higher safety factors than those for typical highway bridges. After validating the present numerical model, a procedure was developed to evaluate the performance of similar bridges subjected to traffic and seismic loads. It is of interest to note that the foundation stiffness and the modulus of elasticity of the concrete have significant effects on the structural responses of the Confederation Bridge.

Analysis of Combined Radiation and Forced Convection Heat Transfer in 3D Laminar Flow over an Inclined Forward Facing Step

In the current study, a numerical investigation of three-dimensional combined convection-radiation heat transfer over an inclined forward facing step (FFS) in a horizontal rectangular duct is presented. The fluid is treated as a gray, absorbing, emitting and scattering medium. To simulate the incline surface of FFS, the blocked-off method is employed in this study. The set of governing equations for gas flow are solved numerically using the CFD technique to obtain the temperature and velocity fields. Since the gas is considered as a radiating medium, all of the convection, conduction and radiation heat transfer mechanisms are presented in the energy equation. For computation of radiative term in energy equation, the radiative transfer equation (RTE) is solved numerically by the discrete ordinates method (DOM) to find the divergence of radiative heat flux distribution inside the radiating medium. The effects of optical thickness, radiation-conduction parameter and albedo coefficient on heat transfer behavior of the system are carried out.

Deep seismic sounding investigation into the deep structure of the magma system in Changbaishan-Tianchi volcanic region

The magma system of Changbaishan-Tianchi Volcanic region is studied with three-dimensional deep seismic sounding (DSS) technique. The results show that the magma system of Changbaishan-Tianchi volcanic region, mainly characterized by low velocity of P wave, can be divided into three parts in terms of depth. At the depth range of 9-15 km, the distribution of the magma system is characterized by extensiveness, large scale and near-SN orientation. This layer is the major place for magma storage. From the depth of 15 km down to the lower crust, it is characterized by small lateral scale, which indicates the 'trace' of magma intrusion from the upper mantle into the crust and also implies that the magma system most probably extends to the upper mantle, or even deeper.(less than 8-9 km deep), the range of magma distribution is even smaller, centering on an SN-oriented area just north of the Tianchi crater. If low velocity of P wave is related to the magma system, it then reflects that the magma here is still in a state of relatively high temperature. In this sense, the magma system of Changbaishan-Tianchi volcanic region is at least not 'remains', in other words, it is in an 'active' state.

Tectonic characteristics and structural styles of a continental rifted basin:Revelation from deep seismic reflection profiles

The Fushan Depression is a half-graben rifted sub-basin located in the southeast of the Beibuwan Basin, South China Sea. The Paleogene Liushagang sequence is the main hydrocarbon-bearing stratigraphic unit in the sub-basin. Using three-dimensional（3-D）seismic data and logging data over the sub-basin, we analyzed structural styles and sedimentary characteristics of the Liushagang sequence. Five types of structural styles were defined： ancient horst, traditional slope, flexure slope-break, faulted slope-break and multiple-stage faults slope, and interpretations for positions, background and development formations of each structural style were discussed. Structural framework across the sub-basin reveals that the most remarkable tectonic setting is represented by the central transfer zone（CTZ） which divides the sub-basin into two independent depressions, and two kinds of sequence architectures are summarized：（i） the western multi-stage faults slope;（ii） the eastern flexure slope break belt. Combined with regional stress field of the Fushan Depression, we got plane combinations of the faults, and finally built up plan distribution maps of structural system for main sequence. Also, we discussed the controlling factors mainly focused on subsidence history and background tectonic activities such as volcanic activity and earthquakes. The analysis of structural styles and tectonic evolution provides strong theoretical support for future prospecting in the Fushan subbasin and other similar rifted basins of the Beibuwan Basin in South China Sea.

The Practice of Forward Prospecting of Adverse Geology Applied to Hard Rock TBM Tunnel Construction： The Case of the Songhua River Water Conveyance Project in the Middle of Jilin Province

An increasing number of tunnels are being constructed with tunnel-boring machines （TBMs） due to the increased efficiency and shorter completion time resulting from their use. However, when a TBM encoun- ters adverse geological conditions in the course of tunnel construction （e.g., karst caves, faults, or frac- tured zones）, disasters such as water and mud inrush, collapse, or machine blockage may result, and may severely imperil construction safety. Therefore, the advance detection of adverse geology and water-bearing conditions in front of the tunnel face is of great importance. This paper uses the TBM tun- neling of the water conveyance project from Songhua River as a case study in order to propose a compre- hensive forward geological prospecting technical system that is suitable for TBM tunnel construction under complicated geological conditions. By combining geological analysis with forward geological prospecting using a three-dimensional （3D） induced polarization method and a 3D seismic method, a comprehensive forward geological prospecting technical system can accurately forecast water inrush geo-hazards or faults in front of the TBM tunnel face. In this way, disasters such as water and mud inrush, collapse, or machine blockage can be avoided. This prospecting technical system also has reference value for carrying out the forward prospecting of adverse geology for potential TBM tunneling and for ensuring that a TBM can work efficiently.

3-D Seismic Identification and Characterization of Ancient Channel Morphology

It is easy to identify ancient fluvial morphologic types by the outcrop,log and core data.However,the horizontal distribution and geometry of the channels can only be identified and predicted by relying on the 3-D seismic data.The 3-D seismic horizon slices,especially,can play an important role in the sandstone prediction of meandering rivers,distributary channels and low-sinuosity channels.Every microfacies unit,including main channels,such as sinuous or branching channels,levee,crevasse channels,ligule crevasse splay and floodplain etc.can be identified.Braided channel sandstones are planar tabular lateral-connected sandbodies and the distribution of thick main channel belts can only be identified from 3-D seismic data.As the braided sandstones are ubiquitous,their occurrence and distribution do not need to be predicted.Generally,the coal velocity is so low that it can create a strong amplitude reflection in coal strata.It consequently conceals the amplitude respondence to anastomosing channel sandstone which could be identified from 3-D seismic inversion data sometimes.Case studies of mud-rich low-sinuosity rivers identified with 3-D seismic data indicate that the scales and width-to-thickness ratio of such sandbodies are small,laterally unconnected,and generally occurred on distant or further parts of an alluvial fan under dry climate conditions.Sometimes extraction of seismic attributes of every reflection event along horizons is expected to maximize expression of the spatial evolutions of ancient channels.

A Preconditioned 3-DMulti-Region Fast Multipole Solver for Seismic Wave Propagation in Complex Geometries

The analysis of seismic wave propagation and amplification in complex geological structures requires efficient numerical methods.In this article,following up on recent studies devoted to the formulation,implementation and evaluation of 3-D single-and multi-region elastodynamic fast multipole boundary element methods(FM-BEMs),a simple preconditioning strategy is proposed.Its efficiency is demonstrated on both the single-andmulti-region versions using benchmark examples(scattering of plane waves by canyons and basins).Finally,the preconditioned FM-BEM is applied to the scattering of plane seismic waves in an actual configuration(alpine basin of Grenoble,France),for which the high velocity contrast is seen to significantly affect the overall efficiency of the multi-region FM-BEM.

塔里木地区勘探地震正演模拟研究

以塔里木前陆盆地地质背景为模型,采用三维任意差分精细积分方法并行算法实现了库车地区三维正演模拟.三维任意差分精细积分方法通过时间域采用局部积分半解析方法求得波动方程的递推算子,与常规的差分法相比计算精度有较大提高;文中计算稳定性根据实际算例进行分析,采用稳定因子约束,得到较好的稳定性;边界条件采用改进的自适应吸收边界,并通过串行程序并行化,大大减少了三维正演模拟的耗时,完成了大数据量三维正演模拟.

三维波动方程正演及模型应用研究

为了真实准确地反映三维地质体的波场特征,在频率一波数域将二维波场延拓算子推广到三维空间,采用三维波动方程延拓方法实现了三维地质模型的快速叠后正演。该方法可以采用相位移加插值方法处理一定的横向变速情况,可以更加灵活方便地模拟地下复杂的三维地质体。首先进行了三维French模型数值模拟,得到了和实际物理模型实验结果相一致的正演记录,并对比分析了三维偏移剖面和二维偏移剖面的偏移效果;然后进行了三维缝洞地质模型的正演计算,得到了高信噪比的正演记录。模拟结果验证了三维正演和偏移方法的正确性,以及利用该方法进行缝洞地质体识别和研究的可行性。

某区块三维深水采集设计与论证

某区块主要勘探目的层位于2.5～3.5s,埋藏较深、断裂发育、构造破碎、各年度存在闭合差.地震资料的信噪比与分辨率不满足油气勘探需求.为此,针对该区块的地震地质条件,结合照明分析以及兼顾各项采集设计要求与工作效率的条件下,重新论证并设计了三维地震观测系统,并给出了海上三维采集设计的处理思路.

基于目标的三维观测系统设计——以百色盆地北部陡坡带实际应用为例

广西百色盆地地下构造十分复杂,其北部地层高陡,断裂异常发育。以往的勘探,一是受仪器设备和技术条件的制约,观测系统CDP网格过大,排列长度较短;二是没有针对盆地中油气最富集的目标区(北部陡坡带) 进行针对性的观测系统设计,致使地震剖面的波组特征不明显,断点不清晰,构造难以准确落实。为查明百色盆地3条主控断层的产状、性质和展布情况,落实北部陡坡带的盆地边界地层接触关系,针对该区地震地质条件, 进行了基于目标的三维观测系统设计。首先,对以往的三维地震勘探观测系统进行了分析,找出了问题的症结所在;然后,提出了设计思路,并利用弹性波波动方程正演方法对目标区北部陡坡带进行了正演模拟,分析了不同地震地质条件下资料的品质以及满足地质条件的采集参数;最后,针对该区的复杂构造进行了基于目标的三维观测系统设计。在北部陡坡带,利用基于目标的观测系统采集的资料,信噪比得到了较大改善,品质较好,可用于精细构造解释。

低幅度构造识别技术在Carmen油田三维工区的应用

近年来,随着油田勘探开发的深入,规模小,构造幅度低的油气藏所占比例逐年上升,低幅度构造也逐渐受到重视.本文分析了低幅度构造的特点及地震反射特征,结合工区实际情况,提出了在地震资料解释阶段研究低幅度构造的流程和思路,总结了针对低幅度构造的主要识别方法:地震正演模拟、井控提高分辨率处理、层位精细解释、三维速度场分析、构造图倾角校正等.通过以上技术在Carmen油田三维工区识别了12个低幅度构造,结合地质、测井资料综合分析优选了两个钻探目标,取得了较好的勘探效果.

三维地震资料观测系统设计中的关键参数

地下复杂地质构造的地震成像目前仍然是一项具有挑战性的技术。野外采集阶段是获得高品质地震成像的一个关键阶段,而主要的采集参数设计得是否合理,在很大程度上决定了地震资料采集观测系统质量的好坏。其中,三维地震资料观测系统设计中的关键参数主要包括:横向分辨率、纵向分辨率、采样间隔、道间距、最大炮检距、面元尺寸、覆盖次数、炸药量、偏移孔径等。四川盆地龙门山中段地区是重要的油气勘探领域,但该地区由于地下地质构造复杂,地形起伏剧烈,部分构造受损,激发、接收条件较差,勘探难度很大,前期勘探的地震资料信噪比较差。因此,对于该地区的高分辨率地震资料采集是一个巨大的挑战。基于四川盆地龙门山中段某探区的地质、地球物理及测井资料,构建了与实际目标储层近似的地质-地球物理模型,获得了自激自收的地震波场记录,模拟结果与前期勘探获得的地震资料较好地吻合,从而验证了所构建的地球物理模型的合理性及适用性。以高分辨率、高信噪比地震资料采集为目标,针对目标探区的地质情况,对三维地震资料采集中的关键参数进行分析和论证。研究结果表明,较小的道间距、较小的面元、较高的覆盖次数、近似勘探目标埋深的最大炮检距是得到高品质地震资料的关键。因此,三维地震资料采集观测系统设计中的关键参数的论证及优选,能从根本上改变地震资料的分辨率,从而为后续勘探中的复杂地质体高精度成像奠定良好的数据基础。

各向异性及复杂构造条件下三维地震采集设计

我国川东北地区油气资源丰富,储层裂缝发育,构造复杂,是典型的复杂地表、复杂构造地区。在开展采集 设计时,首先从正演着手,分析各向异性存在条件下的地震波运动学及动力学特征;然后对实际地震资料进行处 理分析,在此基础上完成工前试验,即基于采集、处理、解释一体化的三维地震采集设计;提出了针对靶区各向异 性及复杂构造的高精度、宽方位、长排列的三维地震技术。

三维正交各向异性介质三分量高精度有限差分正演模拟

三维各向异性正演模拟是研究各向异性介质中波场传播规律的重要方法。本文就三维正交各向异性介质给出了一种快速精确的有限差分正演方法。该方法采用了４阶精度的空间差分格式和２阶精度的时间差分格式，这既要提高了精度，也不增加过多计算量；另外还结合通量校正法来克服数值频散，使计算能以较大的网络步长进行，在减少了计算量的同时，还提高了精度。对边界反射，文中提出了一种简单实用的三维各向异性吸收边界条件，易于编程，且吸收效果明显；对数值计算的稳定性问题也作了一般讨论。数值算例验证了本文方法的正确性和有效性，并表明它具有精度高和边界吸收明显的优点。该方法不但可以用来合成三维各向异性介质的共炮点记录、ＶＳＰ三分量记录及零偏移距地震记录，而且还适用于其他各种类型的波场正演。